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COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr. 



Essentials of English 



A Textbook for Schools 



BY GEORGE W. RINE 

K 



Pacific Press Publishing Company 

Mountain View, California 
Portland, Oregon Regina, Sask., Canada Kansas City, Missouri 



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UBHARY Of CONGRESS? 
1 wo Copies Heceivefl 

AUG 15 1908 

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Entered According to Act of Congress, in the Year 1908, by the 

PACIFIC PRESS PUBLISHING COMPANY 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C. 



I 



PREFACE 



This book is planned to afford the learner a 

~ practice revfew of the essentials of English gram- 

- mar, and a preparation for the study of formal and 

* practical rhetoric. v^The book is, in brief, a manual 

of the working principles of English composition. 

It is designed to serve as a natural transition from 

the study of grammar to that of rhetoric proper. 

It is, for this reason, adapted to the needs of the 

higher classes in grammar schools and the lower 

classes in" high schools. 

Part One is replete with matter suited to the task 
of training the pupil to syntactical accuracy. The 
materials for study and practice have been selected 
and arranged with a constant view to the vital peda- 
gogical principal — learning by doing. 

The pupil should be taught from the first to punc- 
tuate correctly what he writes. No writing is com- 
plete until it is punctuated. To punctuate properly 
is as important as to spell correctly. To master the 
art of punctuating is to master a very considerable 
part of the art of clearness in written composition. 
For this reason the subject is treated with unusual 
fullness in Part Two. 

Part Three sets forth the principles governing 
the art of letter- writing. But this art, like all others, 
can not be mastered without much practice. The 
discussion of principles is, therefore, followed by an 
abundance of suggestive exercises. 

Part Four is in itself a brief manual of composi- 
tion. It discusses words, sentences, and paragraphs. 
Figurative language is explained and illustrated 
with considerable fullness. The principles of clear- 
ness, force, unity, variety, and transition are set 

(iii) 



IV PREFACE 

forth and illustrated. A marked feature of Part 
Four is the unusual variety and fullness of prac- 
tical exercises designed to assist the learner in the 
extremely important work of building a vocabulary. 
Other means of attaining the same end will sug- 
gest themselves to the teacher. 

Part Five treats of synonyms, homonyms, idioms, 
and phrases, which are in frequent misuse. Many 
actual and some apparent synonyms are discrim- 
inated. Common improprieties of diction are pointed 
out and their corrections indicated. A somewhat 
long list of exercises is added, which will exact of 
the learner original investigation and vigorous, in- 
dependent thinking. 

Some teachers may not like the sequence govern- 
ing the succession of the several parts of this work. 
Teachers must not get the impression, however, that 
it is necessary to study the parts consecutively. 
Each part is measurably complete in itself, and, to 
a considerable degree, independent of the other parts. 
It is not necessary that the study of Part One be 
finished before lessons are assigned in Part Two. 
It is evident that the art of punctuation should be 
well mastered before the study of the "Principles 
of Effective Composition" is begun. The work 
prescribed in Part Five should, in my judgment, be 
distributed over the entire time required to com- 
plete the study of the book. 

It should never be forgotten that in the arduous 
process of attaining skill in speaking and writing 
English, nothing else succeeds like speaking and 
writing. "We learn by doing." 

George W. Rine. 



CONTENTS 



Page 

Part One 

Applied Grammar 7 

Part Two 

Punctuation 90 

Part Three 

Letter- Writing 141 

Part Four 

Principles of Effective Composition 163 

Part Five 

Accuracy in the Use of Words 246 



PART ONE 



Applied Grammar 

Faultless grammar is the first requisite of good 
English. It is a degree of perfection of speech 
to which all can attain. It is, however, only by 
extended observation and practice that grammatical 
accuracy can be crystallized into habit — a habit 
indispensable to those who appeal to their fellows 
through voice or pen. 

The only phase of grammar with which we are 
here concerned is the application of its laws. The 
standard of grammatical correctness is the usage 
of scholarly writers and speakers of the present time. 
Like all other living tongues, the English language 
is a growing language, and is, therefore, subject to 
change from time to time. What was faultless Eng- 
lish in the time of Shakespeare, contains not a few 
expressions that are now solecisms. 

Definition. — A Solecism is a construction at va- 
riance with the law's of grammar. 

Definition. — Syntax is the art of correctly ap- 
plying the laws of grammar in the construction of 
sentences. 

Hence solecisms, taken collectively, are usually 
called False Syntax. The few solecisms found in 
the King James Version of the Bible were not sole- 
cisms at the time that version was made (1611). 

(7) 



8 . ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

The fundamental principles of grammar, estab- 
lished by good usage, will now be stated and illus- 
trated. 

HOW TO FORM THE POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS 

Rule. — The possessive of nearly all singular 
nouns, and of all plural nouns not ending in s, 
is formed by adding an apostrophe and s ('s) to 
the nominative form. The possessive of all plural 
nouns that end in s is formed by adding an apos- 
trophe alone. 

a. The possessive case of a few proper nouns, for 
examples, Jesus, Moses, Xerxes, Achilles, Hercules, 
Demosthenes, etc., and of the abstract nouns good- 
ness and conscience, is formed by adding an apos- 
trophe alone; as, Jesus' disciples; Xerxes' army; 
Achilles' wrath; for conscience' sake; for goodness' 
sake. 

b. Words having the same form in the singular 
and the plural number form the plural possessive by 
adding an s and an apostrophe (s') ; as, sheeps' eyes; 
deers' horns. As a rule, proper nouns of the sin- 
gular number, whether they end in s or not, take 
the possessive form regularly ; that is, by the adding 
of the apostrophe and s; as, Dr. Brooks's sermons ; 
Burns' s poems; Charles's bicycle. The adding or 
the omitting of the s in such cases is chiefly a matter 
of taste. The practice of newspaper publishers 
varies greatly. Whenever there is doubt, it is safe 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 9 

to follow the regular rule; as, Perkins's "Rules of 
the Game." 

c. The possessive case of compounds and expres- 
sions used as compound nouns is formed by adding 
the sign of the possessive to the last part of the 
compound ; as, The attorney -general 's office is on the 
third floor. His two brothers-in-law' s estates were 
sold. The Emperor of Germany's youngest son has 
no taste for military life. 

d. The possessive case of two or more nouns 
denoting joint possession is formed by adding the 
sign of the possessive to the last noun alone; as, 
Hugh, Paul, and Alice's uncle gave them a Shetland 
pony. We used Herrick and Damon's "Composition 
and Rhetoric." 

e. The possessive case of two or more nouns used 
co-ordinately, but not denoting joint possession, is 
formed by adding the possessive sign to each noun ; 
as, There are more women's and children's shoes 
made in Lynn than in Boston. He would listen to 
neither his father's nor his teacher's advice. 

f. There are two recognized ways of expressing 
the possessive case of compound forms ending in 
else; as, Some one's else book, or, Some one else's 
book. To-day most writers of repute prefer the 
latter, or regular, form. 

g. Sometimes possession is indicated by the prepo- 
sition of used with, or without, the apostrophe and s; 
as, Those were the words of Jesus. He is a servant 
of my uncle's. This is a story of my father's. The 



10 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

names of inanimate objects usually express pos- 
session by means of the o /-phrase alone; as, The 
hardness of the rock; not, The rock's hardness. Yet 
such short phrases as "a week's wages," "at death's 
door," "a day's journey," "two years' interest," are 
supported by the best usage. 

The student must not fail to note that a sen- 
tence in which an o/-phrase is used alone to denote 
possession, has a meaning different from what it has 
when the apostrophe and s are used in addition to 
the o /-phrase. Thus: "This is a story of my 
father's" means a story told by my father. "This is 
a story of my father," means a story about my 
father. 

EXERCISE I 

Embody in sentences the possessive form of each 
of the following words or groups of words: 

Pericles brothers-in-law 

teachers Chief Justice Fuller 

John Adams eagles 

women angels 

six months waif 

Lord Essex monkey 

oxen geese 

pony Prince of Wales 

Robert Burns one day 

Knights Templars King of Spain 

four years princes 

witness ladies 

mice Senator Perkins 

Edward the Seventh chief 

fox postmaster-general 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 11 

EXERCISE II 

Distinguish as to ?neaning between the members 
of each of the following pairs: 

1. My brother's picture. The picture of my 
brother. 

2. The reception of Dewey in New York. Dewey's 
reception in New York. 

3. Gertrude and Laura's doves. Gertrude's and 
Laura's doves. 

4. Care of a sister. A sister's care. 

5. The President's reception. The reception of 
the President. 

6. This is a portrait of her. This is a portrait 
of her's. 

7. A story of Dr. Briggs. A story of Dr. Briggs's. 

8. Children's love. The love of children. 

EXERCISE III 

Write the following correctly. Give, the reason 
for each correction: 

1. Our pupils use Ridpath, Eggleston, and Chan- 
ning's United States History. 

2. Do you prefer Morton or Frye's geography? 

3. A goose and a duck's foot are shaped nearly 
alike. 

4. Father likes Tennyson better than Words- 
worth's poetry. 

5. I have no time to read Stewart or Hamilton's 
philosophy. 



12 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

6. He plowed up a mouses' nest. 

7. Grant and Lee's soldiers were disbanded at the 
same time. 

SPECIAL NUMBER FORMS OF NOUNS 

Rule. — Most English nouns are made plural by 
adding s to the singular. 

The following are important variations from this 
rule: 

1. Nouns Ending in "o." — If the final o is pre- 
ceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly, that 
is, by adding s; as, portfolio, portfolios. If the final 
o is preceded by a consonant, the plural is formed, 
as a rule, by adding es; as, hero, heroes. 

The following words, however, are exceptions, and 
form the plural by adding s alone: 



banjo 


bravo 


piano 


stiletto 


canto 


lasso 


grotto 


tyro 


halo 


memento 


proviso 


torso 


junto 


octavo 


quarto 


casino 


chromo 


dvnamo 


solo 





2. Nouns Ending in "y." — If the final y is pre- 
ceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly ; as, 
valley, valleys; chimney, chimneys. 

If the final y is preceded by a consonant, the y 
is changed to i and es is added to form the plural; 
as, cherry, cherries; mercy, mercies. 

3. Nouns Ending in "p." — The following nouns 
ending in the sound of f form the plural by chang- 
ing f or fe to v and adding es: 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 13 



beef 


half 


life 


sheaf 


wife 


calf 


knife 


loaf 


shelf 


wolf 


elf 


leaf 


self 


thief 


wharf (or wharfs) 



A few nouns ending in / or fe follow the regular 
rule, and add s. The following are examples : 

belief grief reproof 

brief gulf roof 

chief handkerchief safe 

dwarf hoof scarf 

fief proof strife 

fife reef waif 

4. Plural of Compound Nouns. — The plural of 
most compound nouns is formed by adding the 
proper sign of the plural to the essential part of 
the word; that is, the part described by the rest of 
the compound; as, goose-quill, goose-quills; sister- 
in-law, sisters-in-law. 

The plural of a few compound nouns is formed 
by making both parts plural ; as, man-servant, men- 
servants; ignis-fatuus, ignes-fatui. Others of this 
class are, woman-servant, woman-singer, man- 
singer, and, usually, Knight Templar. 

5. Plural of Proper Nouns. — The plural of 
proper nouns is expressed by adding s to the singu- 
lar, or es when s will not coalesce in sound ; as, the 
first two Napoleons; the two Marys of English his- 
tory; the Joneses; the two Johns of the New Testa- 
ment. 

Most proper nouns when preceded by titles may 
be made plural in either of two ways; the Misses 



14 



ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 



Blair, or the Miss Blair s; the Messrs. Clark, or the 
Mr. Clarks; the Colonels Brown, or the Colonel 
Browns; the Drs. Hall, or the Dr. Halls. The latter 
of these forms is always used when the title is pre- 
ceded by a numeral; as, The two Mr. Wellers; the 
three Miss Bartletts. When the title is Mrs., the 
proper sign of the plural is added to the last part 
only; as, the Mrs. Parkers. 

6. Letters, Figures, and other symbolic charac- 
ters are made plural by adding an apostrophe and 
s Cs) ; as, There are more e's than i f s in this word. 
There are three J^s in this number. 

7. Nouns Always Treated as Plurals. — The 
following nouns are used in the plural number only : 



aborigines 


clothes 


pincers 


alms 


credentials 


premises (property) 


amends 


dregs 


riches 


annals 


eaves 


scissors 


antipodes 


embers 


snuffers 


archives 


goods (mdse.) 


statistics 


ashes 


headquarters 


tongs 


assets 


hose 


thanks 


belles-lettres 


hysterics 


tidings 


billiards 


nuptials 


trousers 


bitters 


oats 


vespers 


breeches 


obsequies 


victuals 


cattle 


paraphernalia 


wages 



Note. — The singular wage is sometimes used in the literature 
of economics. News is always singular. 

8. Names of Sciences or Arts Ending in "ic" or 
"ics." — All such nouns, except politics, are always 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 



15 



singular. Among these are : arithmetic, mathematics, 
logic, ethics, aesthetics, optics, acoustics, etc. Poli- 
tics was formerly treated as singular only, but writ- 
ers of to-day, as a rule, treat it as plural. There is 
excellent authority for treating United States either 
as singular or as plural. The justices of the United 
States Supreme Court and those of other federal 
courts always treat United States as a plural; as, 
The United States ivere represented at The Hague 
Peace Congress. 

9. An English and a Foreign Plural. — Many 
nouns adopted from foreign languages have both 
an English and a foreign plural form. Those most 
frequently used are the following: 



'ngidar 


English Plural 


Foreign Plural 


bandit 


bandits 


banditti 


beau 


beaus 


beaux 


cherub 


cherubs 


cherubim 


focus 


focuses 


foci 


formula 


formulas 


formulae 


gymnasium 


gymnasiums 


gymnasia 


memorandum 


memorandums 


memoranda 


nucleus 


nucleuses 


nuclei 


radius 


radiuses 


radii 


seraph 


seraphs 


seraphim 


spectrum 


spectrums 


spectra 


stamen 


stamens 


stamina 



10. Foreign Plurals Only. — Some nouns adopted 
from foreign languages retain their original plural 
forms. The more common of these are — 



16 



ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 



Singular 



Plural 



alumna (fern.) 


alumnae 


alumnus (mas.) 


alumni 


amanuensis 


amanuenses 


analysis 


analyses 


axis 


axes 


basis 


bases 


crisis 


crises 


datum 


data 


desideratum 


desiderata 


diaeresis 


diaereses 


ellipsis 


ellipses 


proboscis 


proboscides 


stratum 


strata 


synthesis 


syntheses 


emphasis 


emphases 


erratum 


errata 


genus 


genera 


hypothesis 


hypotheses 


madame 


mesdames 


minutia 


minutiae 


monsieur 


messieurs 


nebula 


nebulae 


oasis 


oases 


parenthesis 


parentheses 


phenomenon 


phenomena 


terminus 


termini 


thesis 


theses 


vertebra 


vertebrae 


EXERCISE 


IV 



Write the plural of — 

Buffalo, mystery, ally, German, duty, calf, bam- 
boo, salmon, major-general, princess, hoof, man-of- 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 17 

war, talisman, x, cupful, looker-on, Frenchman, 
donkey, Miss Rogers, court-martial, journey, Brah- 
man, forget-me-not, Dr. Hallam, minister-plenipo- 
tentiary, mouthful, mosquito, ditch, tyro, ellipsis, 
genus, Dakota, Mrs. Wilson, vertebra, heathen, Mr. 
Stratton, Watts, snipe, Dutchman, baseball, stimu- 
lus, datum, Ottoman, poet-laureate, commander-in- 
chief, alumna, postmaster-general, ipse dixit, halo, 
Norman, teacup, son-in-law, alumnus. 

EXERCISE V 

Each of the following nouns has two plurals, 
which are different in meaning. Use in sentences 
both plurals of each noun: 

brother penny genius index 

die staff cherub horse 

fish foot shot cloth 

EXERCISE VI 

Use each of the following nouns as the subject 
of a verb: 

ashes data suds wages 

optics assets tidings acoustics 

proceeds news phenomena scissors 

GENDER 

Definition. — Gender is a grammatical property 
of nouns and pronouns by which objects are dis- 
tinguished in regard to sex. 

A noun or pronoun denoting a male object is in 



18 



ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 



the masculine gender; & noun or pronoun denoting 
a female object is in the feminine gender; a noun or 
pronoun denoting an object or an idea that has no 
sex is in the neuter gender (neuter means neither). 



EXERCISE VII 

Write the corresponding masculine or feminine 
form of each of the following words, according as 
the word given is masculine or feminine. Consult, 
if necessary, any standard work on grammar: 



Jew 


sultana 


tiger 


benefactor 


maidservant 


administrator 


hero 


czar 


vixen 


executrix 


marchioness 


emperor 


lass 


hostess 


doe 


his 


duke 


witch 


bullock 


goose 


stag 


spinster 


nun 


earl 


idolater 


preceptor 


duck 


bride 


niece 


lady 


sir 


filly 


hen-sparrow 


he-wolf 


giant 


Joseph 


Henry 


Frances 


Augustus 


Jesse 


George 


Mrs. Brown 


hart 


benefactor 


negro 


gentlewoman 


schoolmaster 


Caroline 


Louis 


landlord 


maiden or damsel 



Gender in Personification. — When we speak of 
a plant or a lifeless object as if it were a person, we 
are said to personify it; that is, we speak or write 
about it as we should of a person. A word so used 
is, by personification, treated as masculine or femi- 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 19 

nine. Objects remarkable for size, power, strength, 
or other qualities thought of as manly, are referred 
to as masculine; objects remarkable for grace, gen- 
tleness, beauty, or other qualities thought of as 
womanly, are referred to as feminine. Examine the 
following sentences : 

Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. 

Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees. 

War smoothed his wrinkled front. 

The sun now rose upon the right. 

Out of the sea came he. 

The yacht is on the rocks; she will go to pieces. 

Note. — Certain words, like author, actor, poet, doctor, have 
recently come to be considered as applicable to both men and 
women, so that we rarely say authoress, poetess, actress, or doc- 
tress. Some words like servant, helper, nurse, 'fish, deer, bear, 
may refer to either a male being or a female being. Unless the 
context makes evident the gender of such words, the gender is 
baid to be undistinguished. 

CASE FORMS OF PRONOUNS 

Nominative and Objective Cases. — There are 
only seven English words whose nominative forms 
differ from their objective forms. These words are 
the six personal pronouns /, ive, he, she, thou, and 
they, and the relative (or interrogative) pronoun 
who. These words are used very frequently, and the 
liability to use one case form for the other is, there- 
fore, great. No mistakes are more common ; and no 
mistakes produce a more unpleasant effect upon cul- 



20 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

tivated persons. The nominative and objective 
forms of these words are — 



Nominative 


Objective 


I 


me 


we 


us 


he 


him 


she 


her 


thou 


thee 


they 


them 


who 


whom 



Note. — The pronoun ye (you) is not added to the seven pro- 
nouns given above because its two forms are used interchangeably; 
however ye is far more frequently used in the nominative than 
in the objective case. Whoever (whomever) and whosoever 
(whomsoever) are compounds of who. 

It is imperative that the student thoroughly grasp 
the following principles of syntax : 

1. A pronoun (or a noun) used as the subject of a 
finite verb is put in the nominative form. 

2. A pronoun used as the complement of the verb 
"to be," or any of its forms — am, is, was, are, were, 
etc., — is put in the nominative form. 

3. Words in apposition are in the same case. 

4. A pronoun used as the complement of a tran- 
sitive verb or of a preposition is put in the objective 
form. 

5. You and it are both nominative and objective 
in form. 

EXERCISE VIII 

To the Teacher. — It is important that both eye and ear 
should be trained to correct forms of expression. A helpful ex- 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 21 

ercise to this end is to require the pupils to repeat aloud again 
and again such forms as: "Is it I?" "Is it she?" "Is it 
they?" "It is I," etc. "It is not they." "It is not we." 
"It is not he," etc. 

Use the correct form, I or me, in each blank, and 
give reason for your choice: 

1. They invited Tom and . 2. May Clarence 

and fetch a pail of water? 3. Wait for Esther 

and . 4. Mother knew that it was . 5. 

She reproved John and . 6. He is not so tall 

as . 7. Father will come, and , too. 8. The 

teacher required Olive and to copy the words. 

9. Olive and were requested to copy the words. 

10. May Marion and go home? 11. If you 

were , should you yield? 12. He expects you 

or to meet him. 13. Please let Will and 

go to the ball game. 14. Who is there? Only . 

15. Uncle bought brother and tickets for the 

concert. 16. The Son of God gave His life for you 

and . 17. Between you and , I feel certain 

that the undertaking will fail. 18. It was that 

sounded an alarm. 19. Every one is going except 
you and — — . 20. There was no one there but 

you and . 21. He said that you and would 

be admitted. 22. Is it he wishes to see? 

23. The older man was supposed to be . 24. No, 

it couldn't have been . 25. He is a more fluent 

speaker than . 26. How can you speak so in- 
sultingly to me, , who am your friend? 



22 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

EXERCISE IX 

Insert the correct form, we or us, in each blank, 
and give the reason for your choice: 

1. Is it that you criticised? 2. girls are 

invited to go driving with them. 3. Cousin wanted 

to go; so father took boys and her. 4. They 

knew it was . 5. It was whom you heard, 

6. He took a picture of boys sitting on the 

fence. 7. The Fosters, as well as , are in- 
vited. 8. Two hundred miles stretch between home 

and . 9. boys had to bait our sister's hook. 

10. One of the lambs got lost, and father sent 

boys to look for it. 11. He said it was , but it 

wasn't. 12. They didn't succeed any better than 

. 13. boys had a fine time. 14. It may 

have been whom you saw. 15. The Chinese are 

better imitators than . 16. They will gain more 

than by the discovery of the mine. 17. I hope 

that they three will ask five to go. 

EXERCISE X 

Insert the correct form, he or him, in each blank, 
and justify your choice: 

1. She is nearly as tall as . 2. If I were 

I should desist. 3. It might have been who did 

it. 4. His father is darker than . 5. Is it 

you wish to see? 6. To Mary and belongs the 

credit. 7. She invited them all, among the 

rest. 8. There is little difference between you and 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 23 

. 9. — — that overcometh will I make a pillar 

in the temple. 10. If I were I would never be 

seen there again. 11. that cometh to Me I 

will in nowise cast out. 12. who gives but a 

cup of cold water, will Jesus reward. 13. who 

gives but a cup of cold water, will be remembered by 
the Saviour. 14. It should make no difference to 

either you or . 15. Few could have written the 

petition as well as . 16. Boys like you and 

are expected to comply gracefully. 17. She did as 

well as . 18. It was Paul, whom the Lord 

sent to preach to the Gentiles. 19. who had 

always befriended her, she now forsook. 20. All 
wore silk hats except Lloyd and . 

EXERCISE XI. 

In each of the following blanks insert she or her, 
according to your best judgment: 

1. He asked Kate if it were , and she said 

no. 2. Gertrude and both are wanted. 3. Fa- 
ther brought and me in the automobile. 4. It's 

, mother is calling. 5. With Ruth and we 

had no trouble. 6. We can not expect much from 

such as . 7. I supposed the tall, stately woman 

was . 8. The farmer was afraid to let you or 

drive the colt. 9. Every one went except . 

10. Should any one be disappointed, it will not be 

. 11. If any one is late, it will certainly be 

. 12. Before leaving Margaret we saw and 

her baggage safely on the boat. 13. 1 dare not let you 



24 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

and sit together. 14. who disobeys, mother 

will punish. 15. who disobeys will be punished. 

EXERCISE XII 

Insert the proper form, they or them, in each of 
the blanks: 

1. It must have been . 

2. We are not so rich as . 

3. I never saw James and together. 

4. Let none handle it but that are clean. 

5. It could not have been , for were at 

school. 

6. None so deaf as that will not hear. 

7. Few amateurs could have done as well as . 

8. that whisper I will punish. 

EXERCISE XIII 

Insert in each blank the proper form of the pro- 
noun, who or whom : 

1. did you think he was? 

2. can I trust, if not him? 

3. does the baby look like? 

4. We did not tell her from the present 

came. 

5. are you writing to? 

6. do you think will be elected? 

7. will the court summon? 

8. did you say sat beside you? 

9. do you think it was that reported the 

matter? 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 25 

10. He is a boy I know is reliable. 

11. I don't know to ask for. 

12. She never knew it was that spoke to her. 

13. did you say went with John? 

14. do you mean? 

15. did the officer suppose it was? 

16. He confided his plan to those he thought 

he could trust. 

17. He confided his plan to those he thought 

favored it. 

18. Mr. Whitelaw Reid, the President has 

appointed ambassador to Great Britain, owns the 
New York Tribune. 

19. do you think I met at the ferry house? 

20. We left the man ignorant as to it was. 

21. We like to be with those we love and 

we know love us. 

22. do men say that I, the Son of man, am? 

23. Elect you like. 

24. should I meet this morning but my old 

friend Tompkins? 

25. Near him sat a handsome man Harry 

knew must be Maude's brother. 

EXERCISE XIV 

Justify the use of the italicized objective form of 
each pronoun: 

1. He knew it to be me by my gait. 

2. I suppose it to be him. 

3. I knew it to be them. 

4. Whom did you take her to be? 



26 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

CHOICE IN THE USE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

Of the relative pronouns, ivho is used chiefly of 
persons (though sometimes of the higher animals) ; 
the possessive whose of persons, and also of animals 
and other objects when euphony will not admit of 
the possessive phrase of which; which of animals 
and inanimate things; that of persons or other ob- 
jects, except after a preposition. 

That is preferred to who (whom) or which — 

a. When the antecedent includes both persons and 
other objects; as, The men and the horses that we 
saw on the transport are intended for service in the 
Philippine campaign. 

b. When the antecedent is modified by an ad- 
jective of the superlative degree of comparison. 
(Do not forget that first, last, and next are super- 
lative forms.) 

c. Usually when the antecedent has no modifier 
except the relative clause; as, Money that is earned 
is generally prized. 

d. When the relative clause is restrictive, except 
when euphony requires the use of who or which. 

e. Generally when the antecedent is modified by, 
or represented by, all, any, each, every, no, only, or 
same; as, All the men that the company employs are 
skilled workers. 

The relative that should not be used when that 
is the antecedent or a modifier of the antecedent; 
as, Do you know that man who is just stepping upon 
the platform? 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 27 

After indefinite pronouns — many, others, few, 
several, some, those, etc., — modern usage favors who 
or tvhich rather than that. 

EXERCISE XV 

Insert in each blank whatever relative pronoun 
seems to you best: 

1. Man is the only animal laughs and 

weeps. 

2. At the door I met an usher, procured 

me a seat. 

3. There are others can testify. 

4. Was it you or the wind shut the door? 

5. Time is lost can never be reclaimed. 

6. It was necessity taught me Greek. 

7. The trees, are mostly walnut, were 

planted by my grandfather. 

8. Every man enlisted was a brave man. 

9. That is the lady spoke to us yesterday. 

10. The first person we saw was Uncle 

Dick. 

11. Those do their best generally win. 

12. I have done many things I should not 

have done. 

13. Mr. Cleveland was the only President 

served two non-consecutive terms. 

14. The horse and his rider — — were lost in the 
desert have been found. 

15. The dog bit the child has been killed. 



28 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

THE NUMBER FORM OF A VERB HAVING A RELA- 
TIVE PRONOUN FOR ITS SUBJECT 

The number of a relative pronoun is determined, 
of course, by the number of its antecedent, but it 
is never indicated by the form of the relative. For 
example, who may be singular or plural : "A man 
who works earns the right to eat;" "They who die 
in a good cause will live again." When writing the 
verb of a relative clause, we must, therefore, note 
the number of the antecedent of the relative pro- 
noun in order to determine the number of the verb. 
A very common and obstinate error is to write such 
verbs in the singular form when the plural is the 
correct form. The opposite mistake is not nearly 
so common. In the sentence, "Mrs. Ward is one of 
the few women who never neglect an opportunity for 
doing good," the antecedent of who is ivomen, not 
Mrs. Ward, or one. Who is therefore plural, and its 
verb, neglect, is properly given the plural form. 

EXERCISE XVI 

Which of the italicized forms is correct? Why? 

1. She is one of the most successful teachers that 
have (has) ever taught in our district. 

2. I look upon it as one of the most feasible plans 
that has (have) yet been offered. 

3. It is one of the words that add (adds) es to the 
singular to form the plural. 

4. Mark is one of those restless boys who is (are) 
always impatient to do something. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 29 

5. You are not the only man that has (have) 
been ignored by the governor. 

6. She is one of the few writers who are (is) 
destined to be long remembered. 

7. This is one of the most instructive books that 
have (has) issued from the company's press. 

8. Our home is one of those which command 
(commands) a view of the bay. 

9. Some of the most heinous crimes that stains 
(stain) the pages of history have been committed 
in the name of liberty. 

10. It was one of the most attractive programs 
that has (have) yet been given in the new hall. 

POSSESSIVE MODIFIER BEFORE A VERBAL NOUN 

The English language comprises not a few nouns 
that end in ing, and partake of the nature of both 
noun and verb. Such nouns are called verbal nouns. 
Very often they follow a personal pronoun or a 
noun that stands for the agent or the recipient of 
the action denoted by the verbal nouns. The noun 
or pronoun so related to a verbal noun should take, 
as a rule, the possessive form; as, "I have little 
hope of his (not him) passing the examination." 
A somewhat different meaning would be expressed 
if the sentence were written thus: "I have little 
hope of him passing the examination." This latter 
meaning, however, is very seldom the meaning in- 
tended. The wording of the first sentence illustrates 
the rule ; that of the second, the exception. 



30 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

EXAMPLES 

1. This can only be by his preferring truth to his 
past apprehension of truth. — Emerson. 

2. There may be reason for a savage's preferring 
many kinds of food which the civilized man rejects. 
— Thoreau. 

3. The two strangers gave me an account of their 
once having been themselves in a somewhat similar 
condition. — Audubon. 

4. Edward's father opposed his entering the navy. 

EXERCISE XVII 

Distinguish in meaning between the two forms of 
each sentence: 

1. There is no use in me (my) trying to learn 
Sanskrit. 

2. We had to laugh at Mary (Mary's) riding a 
donkey. 

3. Much depends on the teacher (teacher's) cor- 
recting the papers. 

4. Who ever heard of Smith (Smith's) running 
for office? 

5. There is little doubt of him (his) being pro- 
moted. 

6. Did you see Leslie (Leslie's) rowing? 

7. What do you think of Uncle Will (Uncle Will's) 
studying art? 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 31 

PRONOUNS AGREE WITH THEIR ANTECEDENTS IN 

NUMBER 

The rule that a pronoun should be in the same 
number as its antecedent is often violated in con- 
nection with such locutions as anybody, any one, 
each, either, neither, nobody, one after the other, 
man after man. These expressions are grammat- 
ically singular. 

a. When, in a sentence, a pronoun is used which 
has for its antecedent one of the foregoing italicized 
expressions, or a noun modified by one of these ex- 
pressions, the pronoun should be singular. 

b. When a collective noun is represented by a pro- 
noun, the pronoun is singular, if the collection is 
viewed as a whole; plural, if the members are 
thought of separately, or as individuals; as, (1) The 
committee has handed in its report. (2) The council 
were not agreed in their estimate of the probable 
expense. 

c. Two singular subjects connected by either — or, 
or by neither — nor, are represented, if at all, by a 
singular pronoun; as, Either the chairman or the 
secretary neglected his duty. Two plural nouns thus 
connected are represented, if at all, by a plural pro- 
noun; as, Neither teachers nor students brought 
their books. 

EXERCISE XVIII 

Insert in each blank the proper pronoun: 

1. Either Esther or Ruth will let you use 

book. 



32 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

2. Each should take turn. 

3. It has been said that everybody is eloquent at 
least once in life. 

4. Many a brave man lost life in that awful 

struggle. 

5. Neither Raleigh nor Gilbert made a success of 
colonizing scheme. 

6. Each of us has faults. 

7. Every one should be careful of what says 

(say). 

8. Nobody went out of way to make the 

stranger feel at home. 

9. The senior class has not yet elected presi- 
dent. 

10. Each of the pupils has own jackknife. 

11. Every kind of insect has — own proper 
food. 

12. Every one should respect the property of 
those around — — . 

13. Neither the boys nor the girls ate 

breakfast before going to the grove. 

14. If any one wishes to see the committee let 
call at the committee's room. 

15. Every bookkeeper and every clerk received 
pay. 



16. Neither of the two adventurers ever saw 

native land again. 

17. Everybody says that never before saw 

so large a man. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 33 

18. Neither the mayor nor the district attorney 
did duty in the matter. 

19. I do not mean that I think any one to blame 
for taking due care of health. 

20. Neither gave vent to feelings in words. 

21. Each of the nations acted according to 

national custom. 

22. Not an officer, not a private escaped getting 
clothes wet. 



23. Hansen and Jensen started off together, each 
with only a dollar in — pocket. 

24. Whoever has a real interest in the school 
should do best to get others interested in it. 

This, These ; That, Those. — Of the singular ad- 
jectives this and that, these and those are their re- 
spective plural forms. Of course the singular forms 
are used before singular nouns; the plural, before 
plural nouns. A common error consists in using the 
plural form these or those for the singular this or 
that before the singular nouns kind and sort, when 
the latter mean class or species; as, "These kind 
of trees grow only in the far West," for "This kind 
of trees," etc. Do not say, "I am fond of these 
kind of nuts," but "I am fond of this kind of nuts." 

To the Teacher. — There is a reason for the prevalence of 
this solecism. Lead the pnpil to see the reason. Nothing but 
drill, both oral and written, will lead the pupil habitually to 
use these adjectives correctly in such constructions. 



34 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

ARTICLES 

Owing to the peculiar office of the adjectives the, 
a, and an, they are often called articles, by way of 
distinction. Articles always limit nouns. 

A or An. — A and an are weakened forms of the 
numeral adjective one. They always imply oneness, 
but in a sense more vague and indefinite than does 
the adjective one. The choice between a or an is 
determined by sound. Before a word beginning with 
a consonant sound, a is used; before a word begin- 
ning with a vowel sound, an is used. However, sound 
and spelling do not always coincide. Thus one and 
union begin with vowels, yet the initial sound of 
each is a consonant sound. Heir begins with a silent 
consonant; its initial sound is, accordingly, a vowel 
sound. Hence we say "such a one," "a union," "an 
heir," etc. 

Usage is not uniform as to a or an before words 
beginning with h and accented on the second syllable. 
We may say "an historical work" or "a historical 
work." 

The Definite Article. — The is called the definite 
article; a or an, the indefinite article. The definite 
article is used to point out some particular object or 
class; as, The teacher will give a lecture on "The 
Bee." In this sentence the first the points to an in- 
dividual teacher ; the second, to a noun used to repre- 
sent a class or genus. A or an can not properly be 
used before a class name, as a class name stands for 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 35 

more than one. Hence we say. The horse (not a 
horse) is the most useful animal. 

Omitted and Superfluous Articles. — The is 
sometimes incorrectly omitted before one or more 
nouns of a couplet or series of nouns. In the phrase, 
"the secretary and treasurer/' one person is meant, 
who is both secretary and treasurer; but in the 
phrase, "the secretary and the treasurer," two per- 
sons are meant, one of whom is secretary and the 
other treasurer. Hence we say, "The secretary and 
the treasurer both resigned," not "The secretary and 
treasurer both resigned." Note the difference be- 
tween "The cashier and teller looks over the books 
each evening" and "The cashier and the teller look 
over the books each evening." We may say either 
"the fifth and sixth pages" or "the fifth and the 
sixth page," but not "the fifth and sixth page." 

What difference in meaning obtains between "a 
red, white, and blue flag" and "a red, a white, and a 
blue flag"? The use of a superfluous a or an after 
the words sort or kind is an error exceedingly com- 
mon; as, in the sentence, "This is a rare kind of an 
owl," or "That sort of an education is not worth 
the getting." We should say, "This is a rare kind of 
owl," etc. 

Again, we may say "all day," "all night," "all 
summer," "all winter;" but not, "all week," etc., but 
"all the week," "all the month," "all the spring," "all 
the autumn." An important distinction made by 
careful speakers is indicated in the following lo- 



36 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

cutions : We may say "enter school/' "enter college ;" 
but, "enter the grammar school/' "enter the high 
school/' "enter the university." 

A or an should not be repeated before the second 
term when both terms denote the same person or 
thing; as, John is a better speaker than writer. 
Grant was a greater soldier than statesman (not a 
statesman) . 

EXERCISE XIX 

Insert the wherever needed: 

1. The horse and cow are two domestic animals. 

2. The man and bear watched each other in si- 
lence. 

3. The first and last stanzas are alike. 

4. The third and fifth example are the most in- 
teresting. 

5. The mountain and squirrel had a quarrel. 

6. The second and fourth problems are the most 
difficult. 

7. The superintendent and secretary has a double 
office to perform. 

8. The passage is found in both the old and new 
edition. 

9. In the copula verb the present and past sub- 
junctives are different in form. 

10. Illustrate by an original sentence the singular 
and plural possessives of the personal pronouns. 



Applied grammar 37 

EXERCISE XX 

Insert A or an wherever needed: 

1. A German and Frenchman were received by 
the President. 

2. Did you ever see a sloop and schooner sail side 
by side? 

3. A black and tan dog trotted down the walk to- 
gether. 

4. A good speller and poor speller have unequal 
chances of success. 

5. A terrier and spaniel are very unlike in dis- 
position. 

6. She is a young and delicate girl. 

7. I never buy that sort of knife. 

8. An ax and adz are similar, yet different, in 
form. 

EXERCISE XXI 

Distinguish between — 

1. The tailor and (the) clothier. 

2. Half a dollar. A half dollar. 

3. The (a) horse is grazing in the meadow. 

4. The commissioners will investigate the cause of 
(the) strikes. 

5. The wise and (the) good. 

6. He told us a (the) story. 

7. She employs a cook and (a) housemaid. 

8. The black and (the) white cat. 

9. The soldier, (the) statesman, and (the) re^ 
former. 



38 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

10. He bought a cotton and (a) silk umbrella. 

11. We listened to remarks by the recording and 
(the) corresponding secretary. 

12. He had (a) salmon in his basket. 

13. (The) men ran to rescue the child. 

14. (A) Mr. Brown called to see me. 

15. There are (a) few honest men in our town. 

16. (The) grass is green. 

17. (The) clouds are beautiful. 

CORRECT FORMS OF VERBS 

In vulgar usage, thoughtless persons often con- 
found the "principal parts" of many English verbs. 
One often hears such solecisms as "I done my part 
of the work," "He seen the man take it," "He run 
all the way," instead of the correct forms, "I did my 
part of the work," "He saw the man take it," "He 
ran all the way." The principal parts of the follow- 
ing verbs should be memorized, and the habit of us- 
ing them correctly should, by all means, be acquired. 

The principal parts of the verbs most liable to 
abuse may be summed up as follows : — 

Present Past Indicative Past Participle 

awake awoke or awaked awaked 

begin began begun 

beseech besought besought 

blow blew blown 

bid bade bidden or bid 

bid (at auction) bid bidden or bid 

break broke broken 

burst burst burst 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 



39 



'resent Past Indicative 


Past Participle 


bring 


brought 


brought 


catch 


caught 


caught 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


come 


came 


come 


dive 


dived 


dived 


do 


did 


done 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


flee 


fled 


fled 


flow 


flowed 


flowed 


fly 


flew 


flown 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


get 


got 


got or gotten 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung, hanged * 


hung, hanged* 


know 


knew 


known 


lay (transitive) 


laid 


laid 


lie (to recline) 


lay 


lain 


plead 


pleaded 


pleaded 


prove 


proved 


proved** 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


raise (transitive) 


raised 


raised 


rise (intransitive^ 


I rose 


risen 


ring 


rang 


rung 


run 


ran 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 


set (transitive) 


set 


set 


sit (intransitive) 


sat 


- sat 



* Things are hung on nails, etc., men are hanged on the gallows. 
** Proven is not sanctioned by good usage. 



40 



ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 



^resent 


Past Indicative 


Past Participle 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


show 


showed 


shown 


sing 


sang 


sung 


sink 


sank 


sunk 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


slay 


slew 


slain 


swim 


swam 


swum 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


wake (transitive) 


woke 


waked 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


weave 


wove 


woven 


write 


wrote 


written 



EXERCISE XXII 



Fill the blanks with the proper form of the verb 
lie (to recline), or of the verb lay (to cause to lie) : 

1. The book on the table. 

2. The album on the table yesterday. 

3. Snow on the ground two months last 

winter. 

4. He has out the ground. 

5. After I had down, I remembered that I 

had my purse on the chair by the open window. 

6. I found the magazine on the table. 



Applied grammar 41 

7. During the storm yesterday the ship at 

anchor. 

8. Slowly and sadly we him down. 

9. Five cats asleep. 

10. Uneasy the head that wears a crown. 

11. The tree has there since last winter. 

12. Birds and fishes are spoken of as eggs. 

13. Having read the pamphlet, I it on the 

table. 

14. After the battle many fallen knights 

about their king. 

15. The tired traveler in bed eight hours 

last night. 

16. The knife had in the water so long that 

its parts separated when touched. 

17. Get up, Tom. You've in bed long 

enough. 

18. You will find the tools where you them. 

19. I found my dictionary all warped. It had 
in the sun all day. 

20. Dapple had to down on all fours before 

Dick could bestride her. 

21. The ship has at anchor since Monday. 

22. The footman was so weary that he down 

in his clothes. 



42 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

EXERCISE XXIII 

Fill the blanks with the proper form of the in- 
transitive verb SIT, or of the transitive verb set. 
Where two forms are applicable, name both: 

1. I wish you would still while I write the 

address. 

2. I in my chair, and as I dozed, some 

one a vase of flowers on the table by my side. 

3. Your coat well. 

4. He has all day in silence. 

5. I have a guard over my tongue. 

6. He the basket of eggs on the counter. 

7. the chair in the corner and let it . 

8. We have three hens. We them last 

week. 

9. After a hen has been she is a hen. 

10. He up late last night. 

11. He in the front row. 

12. I traps in the woods last winter. 

13. The cat up a howl. 

14. John up late last night to write letters. 

15. "We may it down that by the age of 

twenty a boy's character has become either 

for good or for bad." 

16. There the setter with a bird under his 

paws. 

17. We in the sun and fished. 

18. down and rest. 

19. While Joe idle, others were toiling on 

to the goal they had before them. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 43 

20. James himself to work, and steadily 

at work for two hours. 

21. Neither do men light a candle and - it 

under a bushel. 

22. He by the hour talking religion. 

23. Let us here and listen to Nature's voices. 

24. The nurse had to up all night. 

25. Last evening we around the fire telling 

stories. 

EXERCISE XXIV 

Fill the blanks with the proper form of the in- 
transitive verb RISE, or of the transitive verb raise : 

1. The river six inches during the night. 

2. All the streams have been rapidly . 

3. She could not get her bread to properly. 

4. Mother says that her bread has nicely. 

5. The price of wheat has . 

6. The water so high that it the bridge 

an inch. 

7. Abraham — — early in the morning. 

8. Many are they that up against me. 

9. The workmen have the railway bed. 

10. A fog from the bay. 

11. The river is rapidly . 

EXERCISE XXV 

Use in sentences the past tense and the present 
perfect tense of each of the following verbs: 

shrink blow lay dive 

come throw wake rise 



44 



ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 



blow 


do 


fly 


overflow 


lie 


freeze 


eat 


forget 


shoe 


speak 


set 


awake 


wring 


rise 


shake 


steal 


know 


plead 


raise 


go 


swear 


spring 


prove 


drive 


catch 


burst 


sing 


slay 


write 


forbid 


teach 


take 


see 


lose 


bring 


ring 


sit 


loose 


lead 


swing 


swim 


begin 


run 


beseech 



To the Teacher. — Test the ability of the pupil to spell cor- 
rectly these verbs when changed to the present participle, or ing- 
form. 

MAY OR CAN 

Can is often wrongly used for may, and could for 
might. May expresses permission or probability; 
can expresses ability or power. When a boy says> 
"I can solve that problem," he means that he is able 
to do it. But when he asks, "May I leave the room?" 
he means, Will you permit me to leave the room? 
This distinction should be remembered and habit- 
ually observed in practice. 

EXERCISE XXVI 

Insert can or may where it is needed: 
— I look through your magazine? 



1. 
2. 



Arthur and I be excused from the phys- 



ical culture exercises to-day? 

3. the baby walk yet? 

4. a hen swim? 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 45 

5. — — I go with the rest? 

6. I ask a favor? 

7. Mother, I have more of the melon? 

8. You say that I opened the letter by mis- 
take. 

9. it be true that the letter was returned? 

10. we have the pleasure of your company to 

dinner ? 

Explain the change in meaning according as may 
or CAN is used in the folloiving sentences: 

1. Father says you do it. 

2. Eunice ride the bicycle? 

3. I help you? 

4. I depend on you? 

5. you come, too? 

6. — — he talk Spanish? 
7. you give a dollar? 

8. — — you climb this oak? 

9. Earl go to the concert to-night? 

UNCHANGEABLE FACTS 

General or unchangeable truths are correctly ex- 
pressed in the form of the present tense. "How 
far did you say it was from New York to Phila- 
delphia?" should be "How far did you say it is from 
New York to Philadelphia?" If it is true that the 
air has weight, it has always been true and always 
will be true. Hence one should write, "Ancient 
philosophers knew that the air has (not had) , 
weight?" 



46 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

EXERCISE XXVII 

Which form is correct? Why? 

1. It has been proved that the earth was (is) 
round. 

2. What did you say your uncle's name is (was) ? 

3. Many years ago I was taught that frost is 
(was) frozen dew. 

4. In what state did you say Cedar Rapids was 
(is) ? 

5. The teacher told me that the cube root of 343 
is (was) seven. 

6. Whose home is (ivas) that which we just 
passed? 

7. He repeated to us the truth that honesty was 
(is), the best policy. 

8. Is he very sick? — I should say he was (is). 

9. Was it Carlyle who asserted that earnestness 
alone makes (made) life eternity? 

10. Why, the poor fellow hardly knew that two 
and two made (make) four. 

11. The preacher declared that God upholds (up- 
held) all things by the word of His power. 

12. Where did you say Antwerp is (was) ? 

13. I think it was Plato who first asserted that 
virtue is (was) its own reward. 

14. His disappointment proved to him that there 
was (is) many a slip 'twixt the cup and the lip. 

15. The ancients believed that the earth is (was) 
the center of the universe. 



APPLIED GRAMMAE 47 

16. What did he say the new minister's name was 
(is) ? 

17. Did you learn how far it is (was) from Seattle 
to San Diego? 

USE AND ABUSE OF THE PRESENT AND THE PER- 
FECT INFINITIVE 

To teach, to ivrite, to do are examples of the Pres- 
ent Infinitive; to have taught, to have tvritten, to 
have done, of the Perfect Infinitive. As a rule, an 
infinitive is used in close connection with a finite 
verb. It is proper to say, "I am glad to have seen 
Yosemite Valley/' "I felt sorry to have hurt his feel- 
ings/' "He claims to have taught in Paris." In 
these statements the action or feeling expressed by 
each predicate looks to the past. Such a predicate 
may properly come before a perfect infinitive. But 
when the action or feeling expressed by a verb either 
in the present tense or in the past tense looks to 
the future at the time it was or is made, the verb may 
properly come before a present infinitive, but not 
a perfect infinitive; as, "I expected to meet you 
there/' not, "I expected to have met you there." The 
mental act expressed by the verb expected looked to 
the future at the time the act was experienced. It 
is altogether proper to say, "Romulus was supposed 
to have founded Rome," because the concept ex- 
pressed by was supposed looks to the past. But to 
say, "I intended to have done it yesterday," is 
incorrect, because the mental act expressed by in- 
tended looked to the future at the time it was ex- 



48 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

perienced. It should be, "I intended to do it yes- 
terday." 

EXERCISE XXVIII 

Which form is correct? 

1. I meant to write (to have written) before I 
left the city. 

2. He went sooner than he expected to have gone 
(to go). 

3. I had hoped to have met (to meet) you at the 
station. 

4. Captain John Smith is known to have (to 
have had) many narrow escapes. 

5. He hoped to win (to have won) the suit, and 
was much surprised at the decision of the court. 

6. They intended to return (to have returned) 
before the fifteenth of last month. 

7. We did no more than it was our duty to have 
done (to do). 

8. I should like to have heard (to hear) Burke's 
great speech in defense of the American colonies. 

9. It was the policemen's duty to prevent (to 
have prevented) the outrage. 

10. They meant to start (to have started) long 
before. 

11. He is said to lose (to have lost) hundreds of 
dollars.- 

12. General Meade intended to attack (to have 
attacked) Lee's forces at daybreak. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 49 

FORMS OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 

The subjunctive mode expresses action, being, or 
state, not as a fact, but as something merely thought 
of, supposed, or wished. A verb in the subjunctive 
mode does not change its form to indicate the per- 
son and number of its subject, except in the past 
tense of the verb to be when its subject is thou. It 
is only in the case of the verb to be that the sub- 
junctive has distinct forms for the present and 
past tenses. Thus: 

Present Past 

Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive 



I am 


I be 


I was 


I were 


Thou art 


Thou be 


Thou wast 


Thou wert 


He is 


He be 


He was 


He were 


We are 


We be 


We were 


We iv ere 


You are 


You be 


You were 


You were 


They are 


They be 


They tvere 


They were 



Examples of the subjunctive form of to be: 
Hallowed be Thy name. 
Would that Doctor Brown were here. 
If I were he, I would not yield. ,.... 
Judge not that ye be not judged. 
If Will were more studious he would rank second 
to none. 

The following formula serves to illustrate the 
difference between the second and the third person 
singular of the indicative mode and the second and 
the third person singular of the subjunctive mode: 



50 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Present Past 

Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive 

I write I write I wrote I wrote 

Thou writest Thou write Thou wrotest Thou wrote 
He writes He write He wrote He wrote 

Examples of the Subjunctive of Other Verbs Than 
to be. — If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out. 
If he promise, he will perform. Thy money perish 
with thee. The law is good if a man use it lawfully. 
Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee. 
Though He slay me, yet will I trust Him. 

The subjunctive idea usually occurs in conditional 
(dependent) clauses. Such clauses are generally 
— by no means always — introduced by if, though, 
unless, lest, whether, or similar subordinate con- 
junctions. The clause, "If he had been there/' may 
be put thus : "Had he been there," thus avoiding the 
use of the conjunction if. 

Note. — It is important to remember that not all clauses that 
are conditional in form are subjunctive in office. If the clause 
denotes a fact as opposed to a mere wish, to a mere supposition, 
or to a future contingency (uncertainty), its verb is not subjunc- 
tive, but indicative, in mode; as, "If Edward VII is King, he has 
less real power than his Prime Minister. V The clause, "If Edward 
VII is King, M is conditional in form, but not in essence, as it 
denotes a fact. The thought is, that notwithstanding his being 
King, Edward has less power than his Prime Minister. But in 
the sentence, ' ' If Prince Henry were Emperor of Germany, the 
army would be made less conspicuous, ' ; the if -clause expresses 
a mere supposition, a thought contrary to fact. Hence the verb 
were is subjunctive in office. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 51 

The subjunctive mode is most frequently used 
to express — 

a. Future contingency; as, If it rain to-morrow, 
we shall not go. Though he forsake me, I will not 
forsake him. 

b. Mere supposition; as, If I ivere chairman, I 
should not entertain the motion. If he ivere not 
my neighbor, I should not vote for him. 

c. A mere wish; as, Would that the teacher ivere 
here. I wish I were an artist. Oh, that I had the 
wings of a dove. 

d. An intention not yet carried out; as, the de- 
cision of the chair is that this question be further 
discussed at the next . regular meeting. The sen- 
tence is that you be imprisoned for six months. 

In respect to one of the offices of the subjunctive, 
Mr. H. G. Buehler writes : 

u Wishes are naturally expressed in the subjunc- 
tive. The present subjunctive denotes a wish for 
the future; as, 'Thy kingdom come J The past sub- 
junctive denotes a wish for the present which is. un- 
fulfilled; as, 'I wish I were a bird.' The past perfect 
subjunctive denotes a wish contrary to a past fact; 
as, 'I wish you had been there/ " 

EXERCISE XXIX 

What verbs are subjunctive? Why? What 
clauses are conditional only in form, and therefore 
not subjunctive in office? 

1. If I were sure of what you tell me, I should not 
hesitate in the matter. 



52 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

2. Though I were to implore his forgiveness, he 
would not grant it. 

3. Though Thackeray was born in India, he was 
not a Hindu, but an Englishman. 

4. Though Texas has, of all the states, the great- 
est area, it has by no means the greatest population. 

5. Though Abraham is the father of the faith- 
ful, he was a man of like passions with ourselves. 

6. Though he were the king himself, he could not 
release you. 

7. Had he been prudent, he would not have blun- 
dered. 

8. If it is raining, I will go anyhow. 

9. Though Burke was the most learned publicist 
of his day, he was not by nature an orator. 

10. If he promise, he will perform. 

11. If a man smite his servant and he die, he 
shall surely be put to death. 

12. Though he fall, he shall not be utterly cast 
down. 

13. Whether she go or stay, my plan will not be 
changed. 

14. If the wind blow too hard, we shall capsize. 

15. I should be sorry if John were to fail. 

16. If books are cheap, a fourth of the people 
never read one. 

17. Were I not your friend, I should not advise 
you as I do. 

18. If Thou hadst been here, my brother had not 
died. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 53 

19. Thy money perish with thee. 

20. If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live 
peaceably with all men. 

21. Were it true, I would say so. 

22. Though our legislators are wise, they make 
mistakes. 

*EXERCISE XXX 

Complete the following sentences by inserting 
were or was, in each case giving a reason for your 
choice: 

1. If I you, I would tell everything. 

2. — — I sure of it, I would say so. 

3. I where I would be! 

4. If he with you, why did he not tell you 

his troubles? 

5. If I wrong, you should have told me. 

6. he king, I would not obey him. 

7. If he be industrious, I shall reward him. 

8. If he industrious, I should overlook his 

failures. 

9. If the work done, we could play. 

10. He speaks as if he in earnest. 

11. If he generous, he would not treat them 

so. 

12. Suppose you given the money, what could 

you do? 

13. Speak as if you confident. 

14. If he chosen, he could not do the work. 



* Suggested by Professor Alfred M. Hitchcock. 



54 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

15. If he disappointed, he has kept quiet 

about it. 

16. I wish I as happy as you. 

17. They consulted the barometer to see if it 

going to rain. 

18. The squirrels are scampering about as if au- 
tumn all too short. 

19. To him the little light seemed as if it 

a comforting friend. 

20. The hailstones rattled against the windows 
as if some one throwing pebbles. 

21. While making a humorous remark, he pre- 
served a stern expression as if what he saying 

the most serious thing imaginable. 

AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

General Rule. — A finite verb, correctly used, 
agrees with its subject in number and person. 

Though long established by good usage, the fol- 
lowing principles are not infrequently violated by 
careless writers or speakers : 

a. The pronoun you whether singular or plural in 
meaning takes a plural verb ; as, John, you are more 
fortunate than most of us. 

b. When a collective noun in the singular number 
is viewed as a unit, it takes a singular verb; when 
the members of the collection are thought of as in- 
dividuals, it is plural in sense, and takes a plural 
verb. Examples: The senate has adjourned. The 
jury are divided in their judgment. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 55 

Note. — In the application of this principle much depends on 
the writer's own judgment. Mr. Froude wrote: "A number 
of jeweled^ paternosters was attached to her girdle. " Another 
writer of equal repute might have preferred a plural verb after 
number, 

c. When the subject consists of singular nouns 
or pronouns connected by or, either — or, or neither 
— nor, the verb should be singular; when the sub- 
ject consists of plural nouns or pronouns connected 
similarly, the verb should be plural; when the sub- 
ject consists of two nouns or pronouns, one of which 
is singular and the other plural, the verb should 
agree with the one nearest to it. Examples : Neither 
the cashier nor the teller was suspected of wrong- 
doing. Either the freshmen or the sophomores are 
responsible for the damage. Neither the father nor 
his sons are responsible for the loss. 

d. The terms each, every, many a, either, neither, 
everybody, anybody, everyone, and anyone are sin- 
gular in sense, and if followed by a verb, the verb 
is singular. Examples : Everyone of us has had his 
bitter experiences. Neither of us has mistaken his 
calling. Nobody but you and me knows where it is. 
Everyone of the boys was promoted. Many a brave 
man has given his life for the honor of his country. 

e. Professor A. S. Hill writes: "When the subject 
though plural in form is singular in sense, the verb 
should be singular; when the subject though singu- 
lar in form is plural in sense, the verb should be 
plural ; as, 'Gulliver's Travels,' was written by 
Swift. Five hundred dollars is a large sum. Half 



56 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

of them are gone. Thirty-four years affects one's 
remembrance of some experiences. Economics of- 
fers a wide field for study." 

f. Words joined to the subject by with, of, as well 
as, in addition to, or together with are not of the 
same grammatical value as the subject, but being 
parenthetical, they do not affect the number of the 
verb. Examples : Asia, as well as Europe, was daz- 
zled. General Custer, with all his men, was killed 
by the Indians. The interest, in addition to other 
expenses, was paid from the profits. 

g. When a verb is placed between its two sub- 
jects, it agrees in number and person with the first; 
as, The leader of the regiment was captured, and 
all his men. 

EXERCISE XXXI 

Insert in each blank the proper form of the verb 
TO BE: 

1. Mathematics my favorite study. 

2. either of you going to the concert? 

3. Ten dollars a week all he earns. 

4. Our success or our failure largely the 

result of our own actions. 

5. Every sound and every echo listened to 

for two hours. 

6. The Epic, as well as the Drama, — — divided 
into tragedy and comedy. 

7. Every week, nay, almost every day, set 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 57 

down in their calendar for some appropriate cele- 
bration. 

8. Neither birch, poplar, nor pine so hard 

as oak. 

9. Neither North nor South slow to fight 

against Spain. 

10. Each of these states a part of the Union. 

11. None so deaf as he that will not hear. 

12. The crowd all shouting. 

13. Neither the eaves nor the shingles in- 
jured by the falling of the tree. 

14. The king of France, with forty thousand men, 
marching up the hill. 

15. Half the oranges gone. 

16. Half the month gone. 

17. A fine collection of coins displayed. 

18. Not one of all the pupils able to answer 

the question. 

19. The ebb and flow of the tides explained 

in the second chapter. 

20. Neither you nor I subject to these rules. 

21. Not one in ten likely to be admitted. 

22. A block and tackle used. 

23. Nine-tenths of his troubles the fruit of 

his shiftlessness. 

24. Their religion, as well as their customs and 
manners, strangely misrepresented. 

25. Either the proprietor or his servants to 

blame. 

26. Either the owners or the keeper — — to blame. 



58 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

27. All work and no play responsible for 

Jack's dullness. 

28. A hundred miles not far. 

29. Eveiy mountain, hill, and valley clothed 

in vernal beauty. 

30. A hundred yards of railway track under 

water. 

31. Pictures a common noun. 

32. A number of the boys waiting at the 

gate. 

The following pertinent note is by Professor E. 
H. Lewis : 

"When the subject is such an expression as either 
he or I the question arises whether we shall say 
or am. It is best in such cases to avoid the difficulty 
by so changing the senter. oth is and am. 

We say, Either he is to blame, or I am. In like 
manner we say, Either you are to blame, or I am; 
Either he is to blame or you are." 

SHALL AND WILL: SHOULD AND WOULD 

Shall and v:ill are somewhat troublesome because 
each performs a double office, sometimes expressing 

called ]rure future — and some- 
times expressing what is called volition. Volition 
means an act of the will. When we express a de- 
termination to do a certain act, or promise or 
threaten to do it, we express volition. 

When we express mere intention or state what is 
sure to happen regardless of our will, we state a 



APPLIED GPvAMMAPv 59 

simple future. The distinction between simple fu- 
turity and volition must be clearly understood before 
one can apply the rules governing the use of shall 
and will. 

a. Shall used with the first person and will with 
the second or the third express a simple future; as, 
I shall go. We shall go. You will go. He will go. 

b. Will used with the first person, and shall with 
the second or the third express volition; as, I will 
go (determination). You shall go. He shall go. 

c. "In a question use shall in the /??•$£ person; with 
the second or tfctrd persons use s/zaM when s/iaW 
is expected in the answer, will when wiM is expected 
in the answer." 

To study a few illustrative sentences will help us 
to grasp more fully the meaning of these rules. 

1. "I shall be twenty next Tuesday." (Simple fu- 
ture.) The speaker here states what must happen 
regardless of his will. 

2. "I shall be happy to meet your friend." (Sim- 
ple future.) Here the speaker announces what he 
knows will be true regardless of his will. 

3. "I v;ill be heard in this matter." (Volition.) 
Here the speaker expresses determination. He re- 
solves to be heard whether others will have it so or 
not. If the speaker should say instead, I shall be 
heard in this matter, he would state simply what 
he knows is sure to happen without the necessity 
of his willing it to happen ; he would express a sim- 
ple future. 



60 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

4. "I will give you the money to-morrow." (Voli- 
tion.) In this sentence the speaker makes an em- 
phatic promise to pay the money. There is here an 
expression of the will. He aims to reassure the 
person addressed. 

5. "You will find him reliable." (Simple future.) 
The speaker does not here express determination, 
or make a promise or a threat, but states what he 
believes to be certain. Had the speaker said, "You 
shall find him reliable," he would have expressed an 
absurdity. 

6. "You shall give me a hearing." (Volition.) In 
this sentence the speaker announces determination. 
The hearing shall be given, if he can possibly bring 
it about, regardless of the wishes of the person ad- 
dressed. 

7. "John will know the result by four o'clock." 
(Simple future.) 

8. "John shall know the result by four o'clock." 
(Volition.) 

In the first of these two sentences the speaker 
states his conviction — not determination or a prom- 
ise — that the result will be known to John by four 
o'clock. In the second sentence he promises that he 
will see to it that John be apprised of the result by 
four o'clock. He wills that it shall be so. But in the 
first he merely states his belief that it will be so. 

9. "Shall you go to the park this afternoon?" 
(Simple future.) 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 61 

10. "Will you go to the park this afternoon?" 
(Volition.) 

The first is a simple inquiry, and expects an an- 
swer containing the word shall. The second has the 
nature of a petition and means "Will you agree to go 
to the park?" It expects an answer containing the 
word will or its equivalent; or the answer may be 
"I can not." 

"Official courtesy, in order to avoid the semblance 
of compulsion," says Mr. Ayres, "conveys its com- 
mands in the you-will form instead of the strictly 
grammatical you-shall form. It says, for example, 
'You will proceed to Key West, where you will find 
further instructions awaiting you/ " 

Should and ivould are in form, but not always in 
sense, the past tense of shall and will respectively. 
When used in this way they are practically gov- 
erned by the same rules as shall and will. Both 
should and would, however, sometimes perform other 
duties. Should may be used for ought; as, Children 
should be polite to their parents. Would is some- 
times used subjunctively to express a strong wish; 
as, Would that I could undo the wrong! 

The most common and obstinate error in the use 
of these four auxiliaries is the practice of using 
will or would with a subject noun or pronoun in the 
first person, when shall or should is the correct form. 
Will or would should be used after a first personal 
subject, only to express volition, or determination. 
In all other cases use shall or should, according to 
need, with the first person. 



62 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

To the Teacher. — The pupil should be given extended practice 
in orally repeating sentences containing shall or should used 
with the first person. The ear should be accustomed to the use of 
shall or should in sentences like the following: 

1. I shall be glad to come. 

2. I shall not be afraid to say so. 

3. I shall be happy to see him. 

4. We shall be at home then. 

5. We shall be drowned if the canoe capsizes. 

6. I shall be asleep before ten. 

7. We shall be worse off than at present. 

8. I shall be sorry if he fails. 

9. We shall reach Boston in time. 

10. When shall I be well, Doctor? 

11. Shall I report the result? 

12. We shall all be dead before that happens. 

13. I shall get out of breath if I run much longer. 

14. We shall be pleased to see you Tuesday. 

15. How dark it grows! We shall surely get wet. 

16. I shall fall if I climb that tree. 

EXERCISE XXXII 

Insert will or shall according to the need of each 
sentence: 

1. We need umbrellas, I think. 

2. You surely capsize. 

3. I be obliged to return home. 

4. We break through the ice if we are not 

careful. 

5. He — — not go home until he has learned his 
lesson. 

6. We not do this under any circumstances. 

7. I succeed in spite of his opposition. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 63 

8. You stay whether you wish to stay or not. 

9. I — do my best, come what may. 

10. You — — fall if you climb that tree. 

11. You have a warm day for your journey. 

12. Do you think we — — have rain? 

13. We find ourselves much mistaken. 

14. Arthur thinks he probably live to old age. 

15. They say I find public libraries in every 

village. 

16. Blanche tells me that she be sixteen to- 
morrow. 

17. If we examine the falling snow, we find 

that each flake is regular in form. 

18. I hope we — —be in time to be admitted. 

19. you be at leisure this evening? 

20. I — — feel greatly obliged if you ask for 

my mail. 

21. I go, and nobody detain me. 

22. I have completed the task by Thursday, 

23. When I call for you? 

24. You pardon me, I am sure. 

25. I — — not look upon his like again. 
Distinguish between: 

1. Hugh will (shall) not see me. 

2. I shall (ivill) not hear his explanation. 

3. You will (shall) know my decision to-morrow. 

4. You will (shall) not be the only one to suffer. 

5. Lloyd shall (will) not go. 

6. You will (shall) have all you deserve. 

7. You will (shall) have your choice. 



64 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

8. He shall (will) do as I wish. 

9. He shall (will) not interfere with your plans. 

10. Do you think I would (should) accept it? 

11. What did he say the admission would (should) 
be? 

12. We will (shall) return at four o'clock. 

13. If he disobeyed, he would (should) be pun- 
ished. 

14. You will (shall) pay for it. 

15. Will (shall) such things be permitted? 

16. He shall (will) see strange sights. 

17. Shall (will) Ruth go, too? 

18. They shall (will) see what I can do. 

19. Thou shalt (wilt) not steal. 

20. You would (should) go if you could. 

21. If you work, you will (shall) be rewarded. 

Shall and will in Subordinate Clauses. — Re- 
specting the use of these auxiliaries in subordinate 
clauses, Mr. H. G. Buehler says: 

"In noun clauses introduced by 'that/ expressed 
or understood, if the noun clause and the principal 
clause have different subjects, the distinction be- 
tween shall and will is the same as in independent 
sentences;" as — 

My sister says (that) Dorothy will be glad to go 
with us. (Futurity; the same as, 'Dorothy will be 
glad to go with us/) 

My sister says (that) Dorothy shall not be left 
behind. (Volition; the same as, 'Dorothy shall not 
be left behind/) 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 65 

In all other dependent clauses, shall is in all per- 
sons the proper auxiliary to express simple futurity ; 
will in all persons implies an exercise of will on the 
part of the subject of the clause; as, 

Dorothy says (that) she shall (futurity) be able 
to go with us. 

She says (that) she will (volition) meet us at the 
corner. 

If Bessie will come (volition) , we will try to make 
her visit pleasant. 

When He shall appear (futurity) we shall be like 
Him. 

The following sentences will serve to illustrate 
further the rules given by Mr. Buehler: 

1. He declares that he shall die if he is not helped. 

2. You say you should like to see him. 

3. Barnes says that he will not pay this bill. 

4. You promised that you would help me. 

5. He said that he should be happy to meet your 
friend. 

6. John said that James would be fifteen next 
month. 

7. I said that I should like to go if I got a chance. 

8. They said they feared they should miss the 
train. 

9. They thought it would rain. 

10. Did he say that he should be glad to go? 

11. Jane said that her mother would try to go. 



66 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

EXERCISE XXXIII 

Examine the following sentences, and justify the 

use Of SHALL OT WILL, SHOULD OT WOULD : 

1. "I will not answer," he said stubbornly. 

2. We should be greatly mistaken if we thought 
so. 

3. Will not our national character be greatly 
injured? Shall we not be classed with the robbers 
and destroyers of mankind? 

4. But I shall doubtless find some English per- 
son of whom to make inquiries. 

5. "I am a wayfarer," the stranger said, "and 
should like permission to remain with you a little 
while." 

6. I fear that we shall have bad weather. 

7. I shall receive no benefit if I do not apply my- 
self. 

8. I think I shall stay at home to-night; so if 
you will keep quiet, I will tell you a story. 

9. You will be sorry if you do not go, and so 
shall I. 

10. I shall be fatigued if I walk to town. 

11. You will like her when you meet her, and so 
will your brother. 

12. I shall be disappointed if he does not come, 
and so will you and your sister. 

13. You shall have the money next week. 

14. Tommy, you shall not leave the room. 

15. I know we shall be sorry. 

16. I shall be obliged to refuse your request. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 67 

17. If I do not wear my overshoes, I shall be ill. 

18. We will do whatever is fair. 

19. You shall not have one cent. 

20. We shall expect you to-morrow. 

21. I shall be satisfied, when I awake, with Thy 
likeness. 

22. He will call for me on his way to school. 

23. I shall regret your absence. 

24. He is resolved that Anna shall go. 

25. We will not pay one cent. 

26. We will not permit this to continue. 

27. If I do not study now, I shall later regret not 
having done so. 

28. I will follow up the quest, despite its hard- 
ships. 

29. I will fight it out on this line if it takes all 
summer. 

30. Shall you go to Newport in July or August? 

31. Will you insist on this demand? 

32. I should prefer to have you go in my place. 

33. I should think you would try again. 

34. If you should fail, how sorry I should be. 

35. Were I to fail again, I should be discouraged. 

36. You will report to your general before twelve 
o'clock. 

37. He fears he shall be late. 

38. He fears you will be late. 

39. Depend upon it, I will be ready when you 
arrive. 

40. I shall be glad if he will tell me wherein I 
have offended him. 



68 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

ACCURACY IN MAKING COMPARISONS 

When two persons, things, or ideas are compared, 
the comparative form of the adjective or of the 
adverb should be used ; when more than two, the su- 
perlative. Thus: Of two evils, choose the less. 
Now abideth faith, hope, love, these three; but the 
greatest of these is love. 

Rule. — When a comparative with than is used, 
the thing compared must be excluded from the rest 
of a class to which it belongs. This may be done 
by inserting the word other. 

When the superlative is used, the particular 
term must be included in the class of things with 
which it is compared. The word other must then be 
omitted. 

It is clearly incorrect to say "Texas is larger than 
any state in the Union,' ' because Texas is included 
in "any state," and of course is not larger than it- 
self. This error is avoided by inserting other after 
any. Thus: Texas is larger than any other state 
in the Union. 

To say "Texas is the largest of any state in the 
Union" is also incorrect, because "any state" means 
"any one state" or "some states," and the thought 
intended to be conveyed is that "Texas is the largest 
of all the states in the Union." The simplest way 
of expressing the thought is "Texas is the largest 
state in the Union." 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 69 

EXERCISE XXXIV 

Which is preferable? 

1. The smallest (smaller) of the twins is the 
most (more) active. 

2. The oldest (older) of the four sons is in college. 

3. Which is the farthest (farther) west, Helena, 
Salt Lake City, or Denver? 

4. Of the two German poets, Schiller and Goethe, 
the latter (last) is the more (most) famous. 

5. Of Irish song writers, Moore is the greater 
(greatest). 

Point out and correct the errors in the following 
sentences: 

1. Our history lessons are the easiest of any we 
have. 

2. California produces more citrus fruit than 
any state in the Union. 

3. Buenos Ayres has a larger population than 
any city south of the equator. 

4. Lake Superior is the largest of any of the 
Great Lakes. 

5. The Amazon is larger than any river in the 
world. 

6. You may have the black or the spotted kitten, 
whichever you like best. 

7. Studying and reciting are both interesting, 
but reciting is the most interesting. 

8. This is the most entertaining book of any that 
I have read. 



70 



ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 



9. Which do you like best, oranges or bananas? 

10. Stonewall Jackson was more daring than any 
Confederate general. 

11. Tennyson was the greatest of any of the 
Victorian poets. 

12. Of all other boys, Charles should be the last 
to complain. 

13. Of all women orators, Susan B. Anthony was 
the greater. 

Adjectives and Adverbs not Admitting of Com- 
parison. — Not a few adjectives and adverbs have 
meanings that do not vary in degree; as, entirely, 
dead, unparalleled. Such words do not admit of 
comparison, or of being modified by most, more, too, 
very, or so. 

Which of the following adjectives and adverbs 
do not admit of formal comparison? 



ill 


universally 


flexible 


late 


invariable 


unprecedented 


square 


unbounded 


invisible 


incessant 


preferable 


productive 


unanimous 


immeasurably 


near 


ambitious 


supreme 


constantly 


unerring 


omnipotent 


inseparable 


parallel 


inaudible 


incessantly 


unique 


absolute 


omniscient 


wooden 


incomparable 


matchless 


paramount 







Professor E. H. Lewis defends the practice of 
comparing such words as full, perfect, and round. 
Thus: 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 71 

"It is often said that certain adjectives like full, 
perfect, and round are incapable of comparison/ 
because they are already superlative in meaning. 
It is true, in one sense, that if a pail is full, it can 
be no fuller. But no actual pail is ever exactly full ; 
no circle ever drawn was perfectly round; nothing 
save God is perfect. The Bible, by the way, contains 
the expression more perfect (Acts 24 : 22 ; Heb. 9 : 
11). If we were to be theoretically exact in all 
our speech, we could not speak at all. In strictness, 
time never 'flies,' the sun never 'rises/ nothing ever 
'happens/ 

"In common usage it is 'perfectly' good English 
and 'perfectly' good sense to say full, fuller, fullest; 
round, rounder, roundest; perfect, more perfect, 
most perfect, half -perfect. We need not go so far 
as to say rather perfect, though rather round and 
rather full might be permitted." 

ACCURACY IN USING PREPOSITIONS 

Errors made in the use of prepositions are by no 
means few. In choosing the preposition that will 
accurately express his meaning, a writer must rely 
chiefly on his knowledge of good usage. The indi- 
cation of the correct use of the more important 
prepositions may, however, prove helpful. 

We should say: 

1. Between two; among three or more. 

2. Different from (not different to, or than). 

3. Accused of (not with) a grave offense. 



72 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

4. Greedy of (not for) popularity. 

5. Acceptable to (not with) the persons con- 
cerned. 

6. Need of (not for) more money. 

7. Angry at a thing or an act. 

8. Angry with a person. 

9. Made of (not with) the best material. 

10. Frown at a person, but on conduct. 

11. One is careless of (not with) one's valuables. 

12. Descended from (not o/) a good family. 

13. Destined to (not for) high service. 

14. Antipathy to (not /or) a person. 

15. Agree with a person; to a proposal. 

16. Confide in (meaning trust in). 

17. Confide to (meaning intrust something to an- 
other) . 

18. Averse to (rarely from). 

19. Yoked with (not to). 

20. Sympathize with (not /or). 

21. Concede to (not wiift) a proposal. 

22. Concur witt a person; m what is said. 

23. Dissent from (not with) an opinion. 

24. Persons are reconciled to others or to God; 
practice is reconciled with theory. 

25. Seized by a policeman; with some disease. 

26. Remonstrate wttfc a person; against conduct 
or procedure. 

27. Accompanied by a person; with noble 
thoughts. 

28. Killed by sl weapon; with dissipation. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 73 

29. Overwhelmed by the enemy; with grief. 

30. Attend to our duties; upon our masters. 

31. Similar things or ideas are compared with 
each other; unlike things (analogously) to each 
other. 

32. Vexed with a person; at conduct. 

33. Correspond to or with a thing; with a person. 

34. Witness for a person ; to a principle or truth. 

35. Emulous of (not for) honors. 

36. Disappointed in what we have; of what we 
expected, but could not get. 

EXERCISE XXXV 

Write sentences illustrating the difference be- 
tween — 

In and into; beside and besides; wait for and ivait 
on; consist of and consist in; laugh at and laugh 
tvith; part from and part with; taste of and taste 
for; assimilated by and assimilated to; smile at and 
smile on; frown at and frown on; accompanied by 
and accompanied with; among and between; touch at 
and touch upon; succeed to and succeed in; bear with 
and bear up; trespass on and trespass against; re- 
sponsible for and responsible to; embark on and 
embark in; eager to and eager for; perish by and 
perish with. 

EXERCISE XXXVI 

The fifty phrases given below are prepositional 
in form, but have the force of adverbs, and are 
treated as adverbs. 



74 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Use each in a sentence: 

Above all, all in all, at a loss, at all events, at any 
rate, at best, at heart, at fault, at hand, at most, 
at one, at random, at that, at the most, at times, by 
heart, by no means, by the bye, for a while, for all 
that, for instance, for example, for lost, for that mat- 
ter, for the most part, for the present, for the time, 
from time to time, in a word, in brief, in general, in 
fact, in full, in other words, in part, in particular, in 
short, in the main, in vain, in view, more and more, 
no doubt, none the less, on the contrary, on the one 
hand, on the other hand, on the whole, once for all, 
over and above, under the circumstances. 

Preposition as the Final Word of a Sentence. 
— "Some authorities object to the use of a preposi- 
tion as the final word of a sentence, but such usage 
is in accord with the genius of all the Teutonic lan- 
guages." — Standard Dictionary. 

The nicest judgment, however, is necessary to de- 
termine whether a sentence would be improved or 
impaired by placing the preposition at the close 
of the sentence. Seldom, if ever, should such phrases 
as, at least, at any rate, at all events, in short, in 
truth, in fact, to be sure, etc., be placed at the close 
of a sentence. 

"Off" Followed by "Of." — Never use the prepo- 
sition of after the preposition off. No mistake is 
more common than off of. The pupil should accustom 
himself to saying : Off the lawn, off the desk, off the 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 75 

pier, off the bush, off the vines, off the roof, off 
the horse, off the first base, etc. 

"Than." — Than is used as a preposition in only 
one phrase: "than whom;" as, Horace Mann, than 
whom no man of his time was a greater educator, 
was a native of Massachusetts. 

"Like." — Like is never a conjunction, and should 
not be used to introduce a clause, as in the sentence, 
"Do like your father does," for "Do as your father 
does." Like properly introduces a phrase; as, He 
looks like his father; talks like a parrot; works like 
a beaver; etc. 

EXERCISE XXXVII 

Use in sentences each of the folloiving words (1) 
as a preposition; (2) as an adverb: 



in 


off 


below 


within 


up 


down 


behind 


beneath 


by 


above 


around 


without 



Use each of the following, (1) as a preposition; 
(2) as a conjunctive adverb: 

Since, before, after, till, until. 

Phrasal Prepositions. — Each of the following 
expressions is treated as a preposition. They are 
called phrasal prepositions: 

as for as to 

apart from because of 

as regards by means of 

according to by reason of 



76 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

by way of out of 

for the sake of in opposition to 

in accordance with in place of 

in addition to in preference to 

in case of in spite of 

in compliance with instead of 

in consequence of on account of 

in front of «with regard to 

Prepositions Derived from Verbs. — Though de- 
rived from verbs, the following words, when not 
following auxiliary verbs, are prepositions: 



barring 


excepting 


regarding 


concerning 


pending 


respecting 


during 


notwithstanding 


touching 



ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB 

Verbs, like adjectives and adverbs, are modified, 
if modified at all, by adverbs. But there are cer- 
tain verbs that, like the verb to be, may have ad- 
jectives for their complements. The more common 
of these verbs are look, feel, seem, appear, taste, 
smell, grow, become, sound, turn, and so on. It is 
proper, as a rule, to use an adjective after any one 
of these verbs, whenever some form of the verb 
to be or to seem or to become may be substituted 
for the verb; an adverb when no such substitution 
can be made. Thus: He looked strong. He spoke 
strongly. Or, The velvet feels smooth. She writes 
smoothly. 

In the sentence, "He turned pale," pale does not 
tell how he turned, but how he became; in other 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 77 

words, he became pale. Hence pale is here an ad- 
jective. But in the sentence, "He turned quickly,*' 
quickly tells how he did the act expressed by the 
verb turn. Hence quickly is an adverb. When you 
say, "The apple tastes sweet" you do not mean that 
the apple performs an act denoted by the verb 
tastes, but that the apple is sweet to your sense of 
taste. Sweet is therefore an adjective. But when 
you say, "The birds sing sweetly," you mean to tell 
by the word sweetly how the birds perform the act 
of singing. Sweetly is therefore an adverb. 

EXERCISE XXXVIII 
Which is correct? Why? 

1. How sweet (sweetly) these violets smell! 

2. At once his eye grew wild (wildly). 

3. The wind blows furious (furiously). 

4. The servant looked weary (wearily). 

5. The day dawned fair (fairly). 

6. He spoke distinctly (distinct). 

7. Her voice grew more faintly (fainter). 

8. He looks stronger (more strongly) than his 
brother. 

9. You are exceeding (exceedingly) thoughtful. 

10. He felt awkwardly (awkward) in the pres- 
ence of ladies. 

11. The dead soldier looked calm (calmly). 

12. You should value your privileges higher (more 
highly). 

13. She seems amiably (amiable) enough. 



78 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

14. The beans boiled soft (softly). 

15. She sings good (well). 

16. The pudding looks good (well). 

17. The phaeton rides easy (easily). 

18. Experience makes us cautiously (cautious). 

19. We should not let our lights grow dim (dimly) . 

20. Deal gentle (gently) with the erring. 

21. He always acts independently (independent) . 

22. The weather turned coldly (cold). 

23. One can scarce (scarcely) help smiling at his 
grotesque movements. 

24. These shoes go on easy (easily). 

25. These shoes feel easy (easily). 

26. They feel bad (badly) over their defeat. 

27. He speaks loud (loudly) enough. 

28. He writes so ill (illy) that one can scarcely 
(scarce) read his writing. 

29. Previous (previously) to his election to pub- 
lic office, he practiced medicine. 

EXERCISE XXXIX 

Distinguish between — 

1. The applicant appeared promptly (prompt). 

2. They arrived safe (safely). 

3. The deacon looks well (good). 

4. I found the way easy (easily). 

5. The teacher took great pains to explain (in 
explaining ) everything. 

6. Do you think I would (should) accept it? 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 79 

7. She was the greatest poet (poetess) of her 
day. 

8. He taught (has taught) there for twenty 
years. 

9. She sings as well as (as. ivell as she) plays. 

10. I remember a story of the judge (judge's) 
that may interest you. 

11. William (William's) and Henry's books. 

12. Feiv (a few) are qualified to serve. 

13. He lived (had lived) on the lake front thirty 
years. 

14. Much depends on the teacher's (teacher) crit- 
icizing our essays. 

MISTAKES IN THE USE OF COKRELATIVE 
CONJUNCTIONS 

Definition.— Correlative conjunctions are con- 
junctions used in pairs; such as both — and, either 
— or, neither — nor, whether — or, not only — but also. 

When using correlatives, we must see to it that 
each of the correlated words is so placed as to in- 
dicate clearly what ideas the correlatives unite in 
thought. This rule is violated in "He is neither 
inclined to favor protection nor absolute free 
trade." By placing the first term of the correlative 
before the verb inclined the reader is led to expect 
a corresponding verb in the second part of the sen- 
tence. In fact, however, the two connected expres- 
sions are protection and absolute free trade. The 
intended meaning is clearly indicated by putting 



80 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

neither before protection; thus, "He is inclined to 
favor neither protection nor absolute free trade." 
As a rule, each member of the correlative should be 
followed by same part of speech. 

EXERCISE XL 

Point out and correct the errors of position in — 

1. She was neither qualified by early training nor 
by later associations to govern a nation. 

2. You are not only mistaken in your inferences, 
but also in your facts. 

3. He neither answered my letter nor my post- 
card. 

4. Every written exercise is liable to criticism 
both in regard to its style and to its thought. 

5. We are neither acquainted with the mayor nor 
his advisers. 

6. The night neither brought food nor shelter to 
the lonely traveler. 

7. He was not only prompted by inclination nor 
by a sense of duty. 

8. Tom's success is neither the result of cleverness 
nor of studiousness. 

OMITTED CONJUNCTIONS 

Professor Buehler writes: "Careless writers 
sometimes omit conjunctions that are necessary 
either to the grammar or to the sense. A common 
form of this fault is illustrated in This is as good 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 81 

if not better than that' — a sentence in which 'as' 
is omitted after 'as good.' The best way to correct 
the sentence is to recast it, thus: This is as good 
as that, if not better/ " 

EXERCISE XLI 

Correct the errors in the following sentences: 

1. Though not so old, Charlie is taller than Willie. 

2. The President is as young, if not younger than 
the Emperor William. 

3. Redwood is not so hard, but more durable than 
white pine. 

4. Jones is older, but not so gray as Brown. 

OTHER COMMON ERRORS 

Most, Almost. — Most is often used where almost 
is the proper word. Almost should be used when- 
ever nearly can be substituted for it. Use most 
to express degree of quantity, number, or quality. 
Thus: "The poor cripple's money is almost (not 
most) gone. Almost (not most) every one contrib- 
uted something to the undertaking. 

Some, Something, Somewhat. — Careless writers 
often forget that some is an adjective, something 
a noun, and somewhat an adverb of degree. The 
sentence, "The patient is some better this morning" 
is a vulgarism as well as a solecism. To say, "He 
looks something like his father," is a gross blunder. 
In both sentences sometvhat is the proper word. 



82 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Real, Really. — Real is an adjective, and should 
not be made to do duty for very, extremely, or really. 
Such locutions as real sick, real healthy, real hand- 
some, and so forth, are solecisms. Real is properly- 
used before a noun; as, This is a real diamond. 

Such, So. — The adjective such is often wrongly 
used for the adverb so, when the idea of degree 
is to be expressed; as in the sentence, "I never 
before heard such an eloquent speaker." The cor- 
rect form is, "I never before heard so eloquent a 
speaker." "I never before saw such a tall man" 
is correct if I mean that I never before saw a tall 
man of this peculiar kind. But if I mean that this 
man is the tallest I ever saw, I should say, "I never 
before saw so tall a man." 

Double Negatives. — In modern English two neg- 
atives are equivalent to an affirmative. To say "I 
don't know nothing about the subject" is equiva- 
lent to "I know something about the subject." An- 
other inadmissible double negative is, "John can not 
pass the examination, I don't think." While such 
double negatives as "I didn't eat nothing," "Neither 
you nor nobody else," and so on, are solecisms, there 
is a kind of double negative supported by good usage ; 
as, Such mistakes are not mfrequent. Not a few 
were unable to gain admission. 

That, But What, But That.— Dr. R. H. Bell 
says : "But that and but what used instead of that is 
certainly poor taste, to say nothing more." 

Say "There is no doubt that (not but what) he 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 83 

will succeed." "I'll not deny that (not but that) you 
are right." 

Had or Hadn't before Ought. — Never use had 
or hadn't before ought. Had ought and hadn't 
ought are vulgarisms. "He hadn't ought to leave" 
is intended to express the thought, "He ought not 
to leave." 

Quite. — Quite is an adverb; it can not therefore 
modify a noun. We should say "a large number," 
"a larger quantity," not quite a number," etc. 

Bad, Severe. — Bad is the opposite of good, and 
is not synonymous with severe. Say "I have a se- 
vere (not bad) cold." 

Very Much. — Very badly means in an evil man- 
ner, hence should not be used instead of very much. 
Say "I am very much (not very badly) in need of 
help." 

Every, Entire. — -Every means each one of sev- 
eral. It is not a synonym of entire or all. Say "We 
have entire (not every) confidence in our em- 
ployees." 

PRACTICE IN DETECTING SOLECISMS 

EXERCISE XLII. 

Point out and correct all errors of syntax in the 
folloiving sentences: 

1. The dice is loaded. 

2. The formation of these rocks are very curious. 

3. Each of these states are a part of the nation. 



84 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

4. Edible fungi is hard to distinguish from 
poisonous. 

5. The phenomena is very unusual. 

6. The data is sufficient. 

7. Those plants belong to different genuses. 

8. How different the climate is to what we ex- 
pected. 

9. Can I consult your lexicon? 

10. Let each of them depend on their own effort. 

11. It was Raleigh's intention to have dedicated 
his book to Lord Bacon. 

12. He was an Irishman who, like Priestly, the 
Republicans delighted to honor. 

13. How will I know who to look to? 

14. I meant to have given the class several of 
these kind of questions. 

15. Which is the cheapest route, the central or 
the southern? 

16. It doesn't really deceive the reader any more 
than "Arabian Nights" or "Gulliver's Travels" do. 

17. Who do you think I saw standing on the 
bridge ? 

18. Any burglar, be he whom he may, should be 
hung. 

19. He found that the river had raised several 
inches. 

20. More than one failure has resulted from care- 
lessness. 

21. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight 
some people. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 85 

22. He laid down in the shade where we formerly 
had set. 

23. One of the most trying things that is known 
to life, is to suffer alone and unjustly. 

24. Every one of the boys tell the same story. 

25. Us boys may soon organize a debating club. 

26. How does my coat set across the shoulders? 

27. The old method is quite different than the 
one now in use. 

28. I will confide the secret to my brother. 

29. He may return next week, but we can not 
wait on him. 

30. It makes no difference whom you thought it 
was. 

31. What kind of an adjective did you say some 
was? 

32. I was born an American, I live an American, 
I will die an American. 

33. Why don't Amelia speak plainly? 

34. Are you most ready? 

35. We don't hardly expect them this week. 

36. It is very pleasant to travel in style like the 
Lord High Chancellor does. 

37. Happiness is not complete except it is shared 
with another. 

38. Can I be excused from reciting this morning? 

39. As Mark was feeling bad, the teacher ex- 
cused him from the recitation. 

40. He called for Estelle and I. 

41. It was us whom you saw. 



86 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

42. There should be no trouble between them 
and I. 

43. He is a man whom I know is honest. 

44. They saw that it was her. 

45. Don't all speak at once, but each in their turn. 

46. Everybody in the waiting room were amusing 
themselves as well as they could. 

47. Neither Charles or Carl found themselves able 
to solve the problem. 

48. The general with all his men were taken by 
the enemy. 

49. Nothing but confectionery and stationery are 
sold here. 

50. Are either of you acquainted with the princi- 
pal or his assistant? 

51. Night air, together with draughts, are the 
bugbear of fearful patients. 

52. Who did you take him to be? 

53. I felt sure that the culprit was him. 

54. He lives as far, if not farther, from the city 
as you do. 

55. I mean Noah Webster, he who compiled the 
dictionary. 

56. The Prime Minister, with the Lord Chief 
Justice, were admitted to the King's presence. 

57. You can take any book that you find laying 
on the table. 

58. Was it a lawyer or a preacher's library that 
you bought? 

59. Candidates are liberal with promises before 
election. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 87 

60. The judge said that he could not entirely 
acquit the defendant from blame. 

61. I wish it was not so far to my office. 

62. Will you be likely to meet the postman? 

63. St. Augustine is older than any town in North 
America. 

64. We can not but help being deeply impressed. 

65. The old swimming hole — I will not soon for- 
get it. 

66. There is very little room here for men like 
you and I. 

67. I would be very much obliged to you for your 
autograph. 

68. I fully expected to have executed your orders, 
but circumstances forbade. 

69. The man whom they thought was the clergy- 
man, proved to be a layman. 

70. He had just laid down when you called. 

71. I can not imagine it to be he. 

72. Who can you recommend for the position? 

73. I think you will find that it was him who 
wrote the article. 

74. How should you like to be me? 

75. I hardly think it was him to whom Mr. Stone 
referred. 

76. She lay the baby on the bed and then ran for 
a physician. 

77. They had no thought of its being us. 

78. What kind of a bird is it? 

79. We woke at five o'clock. 



88 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

80. I wrang the clothes as dry as I could. 

81. Did you wake of your own accord, or did you 
have some one else awake you ? 

82. He has set up night after night to study. 

83. Her cries for help have been wringing in 
my ears all day. 

84. You caught cold by laying on the grass while 
John was sitting out the shrubs. 

85. Every one present, except he, guessed why. 

86. He earnestly protested against them embark- 
ing in the enterprise. 

87. I meant, when I first came, to have bought 
all Paris. 

88. If I had not rode part of the way, I never 
would have been there in time. 

89. It is just as good, if not better, than any 
other brand in the market. 

90. I have no doubt but what he meant to have 
told you the facts long ago. 

91. He would allow no one to open their eyes while 
at prayers, and would ofttimes raise up and look 
around to see if all were praying. 

92. I neither attempted to conceal from myself 
nor from him that the project would be a danger- 
ous one. 

93. Charlemagne patronized not only learned men, 
but also established educational institutions. 

94. "When will you be ready for business ?" asked 
the reporter. 

95. If it don't come before six, I shall have to 
go for it myself. 



APPLIED GRAMMAR 89 

96. Which structure is best, the loose or the 
periodic ? 

97. Mazzini did more for the unity of Italy than 
any living man. 

98. He once said to his mother, "I believe I will 
die young." 

99. In Europe no one marries without they have 
a certain amount of property. 

100. Beelzebub, than who, Satan except, none 
higher sat. 



PART TWO 



Punctuation 

Punctuation is an indispensable help in making 
clear, and therefore easy to read, what one writes. 
It is the art of dividing ivritten discourse into sen- 
tences and shorter sections in such a manner as to 
make clear to the eye their grammatical relations. 
Punctuation is just as essential to the structure and 
meaning of sentences as are the choosing and ar- 
ranging of words. "Every mark of punctuation, 
if rightly used," says Professor Genung, "has its 
definite office to fulfil, and depends on some deter- 
minate principle of connection and relation." 

Though no two writers punctuate precisely alike, 
yet the important rules for using the period, the 
comma, the colon, and so on, are fully established 
in the practice of reputable writers. Rules and di- 
rections can only facilitate the process of mastering 
the art. One is not a master of the art until one 
punctuates correctly from sheer habit — automatic- 
ally. A master punctuates without thinking of the 
rules, for he is himself the rules — and vastly more — 
incarnate. Here, as elsewhere, patient observation 
and persistent practice are the ladder by which we 
rise to the plane of mastery. 

The purpose of using capital and italic letters is 
practically the same as that of punctuating. Hence 

(90) 



PUNCTUATION 91 

the rules for the use of capitals are here included 
under punctuation. 

CAPITAL LETTERS 

The following are the essential rules governing 
the use of capital letters : 

Begin with a capital letter — 

1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. The first word of every line of poetry. 

3. The first word of every phrase or clause sepa- 
rately numbered. 

4. The first word of every example, question, 
precept, or direct quotation, which, in effect, is a 
sentence within a sentence. 

5. A proper noun. 

6. A word derived from a proper noun and an 
abbreviation of a proper noun. 

Note. — Some words derived from proper nouns, have, by long 
usage, lost all reference to their origin, and hence are written 
with small initial letters; as, simony, currant, artesian, laconic, 
milliner, solecism, etc. 

7. A common noun when joined to a proper noun 
to form a compound name. 

Note. — By some authorities geographical names are made an 
exception to this rule; as, the Hudson river. 

8. A title of honor or of office when used with 
a proper name or when referring to a particular 
person. 

9. Names of the Deity, and, usually, personal 
pronouns referring to the Deity. 



92 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

10. Names of the Bible and of its books. 

11. Names of religious denominations, of political 
parties, and of all other organized bodies. 

12. Names of the months, and of the days of the 
week. 

13. Names of important historical events and 
epochs. 

14. The first word and all important words in 
the titles of books and of all other forms of dis- 
course. 

15. Each of the words north, east, south, ivest, 
when it denotes a part of a country, but not when it 
denotes direction. 

16. A noun "so strongly personified as to produce 
in the mind a distinct image of a person." 

17. Words denoting family relations, such as 
father, mother, uncle, and so on, when used with 
the proper names of the persons, or when used with- 
out a possessive noun or pronoun. 

18. The word fathers when it denotes sages or 
ancient Christian writers. 

To these rules must be added — 

19. The words I and are always written as 
capitals. 

20. "Common nouns and adjectives often begin 
with capital letters when they designate the topics 
or main points of definitions or similar statements. 
Such capitals are called emphatic (or topical) capi- 
tals." 



PUNCTUATION 93 

Often a Matter of Taste. — All who have had 
considerable experience in writing know that there 
are many constructions where the use or non-use of 
capitals is solely a matter of taste. 

The tendency to use italics sparingly is becoming 
more and more marked. Inexperienced writers are 
prone to capitalize and italicize too much. 

EXERCISE I 

Justify the use of the capitals in the following 
sentences: 

1. Caesar cried, "Help me, Cassius, or I sink." 

2. The Prince of Wales will succeed King Ed- 
ward upon the throne of England. 

3. He was the author of "The Reformation in 
France." 

4. In the beginning was the Word, and the Word 
was with God, and the Word was God. John 1:1. 

5. His name shall be called Wonderful, Counsel- 
lor, The mighty God, The everlasting Father, The 
Prince of Peace. Isa. 9 : 6. 

6. St. Edmund of Canterbury was right when he 
said to some one, "Work as though you would live 
forever; live as though you would die to-day." 

7. Leonardo da Vinci would walk across Milan 
to change a single tint or the slightest detail in his 
famous picture of "The Last Supper." 

8. Mr. and Mrs. Simpson request the pleasure of 
Mr. Wheeler's company at dinner on Wednesday, 



94 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

June twenty-third, at seven o'clock. To meet Mr. 
James Larkin. 

23 Lear Street, June nineteenth. 
9. Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 
Or Flattery soothe the dull cold ear of 
Death? 

10. President Benjamin Harrison was a member 
of the First Presbyterian Church, of Indianapolis. 
In politics Mr. Harrison was a Republican. He was 
an ardent supporter of democratic institutions. 

11. Let me repeat it: Devote yourself to the good 
of humanity. 

12. This watch is a present from Uncle Edwin. 

13. The Breeze came whispering to our ear. 

14. Charcoal. 

a. Tell what it is. 

b. Describe the manufacture of charcoal. 

c. Chief uses. 

ITALICS 

1. A word belonging to a foreign language should 
be italicized when printed in English ; as, Un cheval 
is the French for the English a horse. 

2. When in written thought a word is referred 
to as a word, it should be printed in italics or put 
within marks of quotation. 

a. In this book such words are italicized. 



PUNCTUATION 95 

3. Words are sometimes italicized to render them 
emphatic ; as — 

It is this soul of words that gives them creative 
force. — R. H. Bell. 

b. The use of italics for emphasis is now much 
less common than formerly. 

THE PERIOD 

The period, as the etymology of the word im- 
plies, indicates that the circuit of the thought is 
complete. Its chief use, accordingly, is to mark the 
end of sentences. 

1. Every declarative and every imperative sentence 
is followed by a period, as — 

Truth is stranger than fiction. 
Go to the ant, thou sluggard. 

2. An abbreviation is followed by a period unless 
an apostrophe marks the omission of the letters ; as — 

The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone would sometimes ad- 
dress the House of Commons at 2 A. M. 

a. When shortened forms of proper names or of 
other nouns become current, they no longer require 
a period. Some of these contractions are Tom, Ben, 
Will, Sue, bus (omnibus), cab, (cabriolet). 

b. Titles may be abbreviated only when they are 
joined with proper names. 

c. The name of a State may be abbreviated when 
standing with the name of a town or county, but 
not when standing alone. 

7 



96 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

d. The name of a month may be abbreviated when 
used with the day of the month and the year, but 
not otherwise. 

e. The words morning, noon, and afternoon are 
expressed by A. M. or a. m., M. or m., P. M. or p. m., 
respectively, only when the hour is given. 

f. The use of & is permissible in the names of 
firms only. 

g. Words, not figures, should be used to express 
small numbers, excepting in tables, statistics, num- 
bering of pages, lines, examples, dates, and the like. 
Do not begin a sentence with a figure. 

3. The title of a book, of a chapter, or of any other 
writing is, as a rule, followed by a period. 

h. Publishers of fine books now often disregard 
this rule. 

4. A subhead, an address, or a signature is followed 
by a period. 

5. Every figure, letter, or word used to number or 
designate a member of a series is followed by a pe- 
riod. The numbering of these rules illustrates this 
requirement. 

i. The former custom of putting a period after 
the number of a page or of a line is no longer ob- 
served. 

j. A letter or figure enclosed by curves and used 
to designate a member of a series, is not followed by 
a period. 

6. A Roman numeral is generally — but by no 
means always — followed by a period. 



PUNCTUATION 97 

THE INTERROGATION POINT 

1. An interrogation point is placed after a sentence 
used to express a direct question ; as — 

Can the Ethiopian change his skin? 

a. An interrogation point should not be placed 
after an indirect question ; e. g. — 

He asked me how I liked Mr. B's lecture. 

2. An interrogation point is placed within a sen- 
tence, when needed to mark the close of an inter- 
rogative clause ; as — 

"My father! must I stay?" shouted he. (Or) 
The question, "Why has the bank closed its doors?" 
must be definitely answered. 

3. When a sentence consists of two or more closely 
related questions each of which, except the first, be- 
ing usually elliptical, an interrogation point follows 
each question ; as— 

Where be your gibes now? your gambols? your 
songs? your flashes of merriment that were wont 
to set the table on a roar? — Shakespeare. 

b. In practice even the best writers are not agreed 
as to the application of rule 3. Some of them place 
a semicolon after each question except the last. 

c. If, however, a question is not complete until the 
end of the sentence has been reached, an interroga- 
tion point should be inserted at the close of the 
sentence only; as, Which was the more ancient, 
Nineveh or Babylon? 



98 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

4. In order to express doubt as to the accuracy of 
an idea, an interrogation point enclosed by curves 
may be placed after the word or words expressing 
such idea ; as — 

It was in 1328 (?) that Geoffrey Chaucer first 
saw the light. 

d. The enclosed interrogation point sometimes 
tinges the doubt with irony; as, Our honorable (?) 
Representative in Congress is now enjoying the com- 
forts of a Federal prison. 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT 

1. An exclamation point follows a word, a phrase, 
or a sentence that expresses strong feeling of any 
kind ; as — 

Oh, that the salvation of Israel were come out of 
Zion! Ps. 53: 6. 

a. Exceptionally strong feeling is sometimes ex- 
pressed by one word, called an interjection. When 
this is the case, the mark of exclamation follows 
the interjection; as, Alas! life is too short for the 
ambitious soul. 

b. When intense feeling pervades the entire sen- 
tence, an exclamation point may follow the inter- 
jection, and another the completed sentence. Some- 
times the interjection is followed by a comma or 
by no point at all, and an exclamation is inserted 
at the end of the sentence. Thus : Alas ! thy youth 
is dead! Oh, what a cruel fate is mine! Ah the 
years, the years! how they pass! 



PUNCTUATION 99 

2. When a person or a thing is addressed with 
strong emotion, a mark of exclamation, instead of a 
comma, may be placed after the vocative noun; as — 

Your voiceless lips, flowers ! are living preachers. 

c. We must not forget that the use of the ex- 
clamation point is much less subject to rule than the 
use of the interrogation point. It is safe to say 
that where one writer would place the mark of ex- 
clamation immediately after the interjection, an- 
other would place the point at the end of the sen- 
tence and insert a comma after the interjection. 

d. In respect to the use of the exclamation point 
Professor Hart says : "The best advice that one can 
give to the young is to be very sparing in the use 
of the sign of exclamation. Use the sign only when 
you are fully conscious that your feeling is intense, 
or that you are directly addressing some person or 
some personified object. A composition dotted over 
with (!!) is evidence of mental hysteria; to cor- 
rect such writing is, for the sober-minded teacher, 
a personal grievance. ,, 

THE COMMA 

The comma marks the least degree of separation 
in the divisions of a sentence. It has been called 
the sign of incompleteness. "It is the group-maker." 
It shows what words belong together, and serves to 
keep words apart that should not be taken together. 
It thus helps to prevent misunderstandings. 



100 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

There is a growing tendency to disuse the comma 
in many cases where it was formerly employed. 
Books printed to-day have fewer commas to the page 
than have those printed twenty-five or more years 
ago. Hence we should be careful not to use the 
comma too freely. It is not needed so often as 
young writers are prone to think. When, however, 
the comma is needed, it is greatly needed. 

1. How to Punctuate the Series. — When the terms 
of a series are in the same construction, they are 
separated by commas. If all the terms are connected 
by conjunctions, the commas are usually omitted ; 
but if only the last two terms are thus joined, the 
comma is used regardless of the conjunction. 

a. A series may consist of nouns all subjects of 
the same verb, of verbs having a common subject, of 
modifiers — adjectives, adverbs, phrases, or clauses. 
It may consist, though rarely, of short, closely re- 
lated coordinate statements. 

b. If it is desired to make each term of a series 
stand out in emphatic relief, commas are used even 
though conjunctions are inserted. 

c. When no conjunction is inserted, even between 
the last two terms, a comma should follow the last 
term also, unless what follows is a single word or a 
short expression closely connected with the series. 

d. If the terms of a couplet are connected by a 
conjunction, no comma is needed. 



PUNCTUATION 101 

Explain the punctuation of the follotving sen- 
tences in the light of the foregoing rule and sug- 
gestions: 

1. Beauty, truth, and goodness are never out of 
date. 

2. The Indian, the sailor, the hunter, only these 
know the power of the hands, feet, teeth, eyes, and 
ears. 

3. The best part of a man's life is his little, name- 
less, unremembered acts of kindness or of love. 

4. He was brave, pious, patriotic, in all his as- 
pirations, 

5. Life is a constant, responsible, unavoidable 
duty. 

6. They are a rich and prosperous people. 

7. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, 
and some have greatness thrust upon them. 

8. For I am persuaded that neither death, nor 
life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor 
things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor 
depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to sep- 
arate us from the love of God, which is in Christ 
Jesus our Lord. Rom. 8 : 38, 39. 

EXERCISE II 

Complete the punctuation of the follotving sen- 
tences : 

1. All was ended now, the hope and the fear and 
the sorrow. 



102 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

2. The model business man dresses plainly prom- 
ises nothing and performs much. 

3. They groaned they stirred they all uprose. 

4. They were so shy so subtle and so swift of 
foot that it was difficult to come at them. 

5. Some books are to be tasted others to be swal- 
lowed and some few to be chewed and digested. - 

6. Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky 
The flying cloud the frosty air. 

7. He searched for it at home on the street at 
his office. 

8. The sun the moon the stars revolve. 

9. He is adroit intense narrow and hard. 

10. Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deute- 
ronomy make up the Pentateuch. 

11. The description was clearly forcefully and 
beautifully written. 

12. The earth the air the water teem with busy 
life. 

13. He laughed he cried he capered about. 

14. Regret for the past grief at the present and 
anxiety respecting the future are plagues which af- 
fect the generality of men. 

Note. — Two or more adjectives sometimes precede a noun, 
which are not in the same construction. Such adjectives require 
neither conjunctions nor commas. For example, "a beautiful 
white horse. " Here beautiful does not qualify horse alone, but 
white horse; hence no comma separates the two adjectives. In 
' ' a fragrant little flower, ' ' fragrant modifies the expression 
little flower, and must not be separated from little. Other ex- 
amples are "a fine large trout, M "a small speckled hen," "an 
affable young man." 



PUNCTUATION 103 

2. The Comma with Independent Elements. — Eng- 
lish sentences exhibit several kinds of independent 
elements: (1) " Vocative " expressions, (2) "absolute" 
expressions, and (3) " parenthetical " expressions. 

(1) Vocative expressions (nouns independent by 
address) are separated from the rest of the sentence 
by a comma or by commas; as — 

Rejoice, young man, in thy youth. 

a. When the vocative is expressed with strong 
feeling, an exclamation point may follow it. 

(2) Absolute constructions are separated from 
the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas. 

b. An absolute construction may consist (a) of a 
grammatically independent participial phrase, or (b) 
of a grammatically independent noun or pronoun 
modified by a participial phrase, or (c) of a gram- 
matically independent infinitive phrase; as, We be- 
ing exceedingly tossed, they lightened the ship. Gen- 
erally speaking, the education of the common people 
is advancing rapidly in Japan. To speak candidly, 
your failure was the result of carelessness. 

(3) Parenthetical expressions are, as a rule, sep- 
arated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or 
commas; as — 

The man was, to be sure, somewhat conceited. 

c. The following expressions are often used par- 
enthetically : 

as it were after all in reality 

as it happens beyond question without doubt 



104 



ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 



of course 


namely 


finally 


no doubt 


besides 


doubtless 


in short 


first 


lastly 


in truth 


moreover 


secondly 


in a word 


to be brief 


then 


in fact 


in general 


however 


in fine 


therefore 


too 


to be sure 


indeed 


thus 


for the most part 


consequently 


again 


generally speaking 


on the contrary 


thirdly 


now and then 


on the other hand 


accordingly 


in the meantime 


in the first place 




d. Most of these locutions are susceptible of two 



constructions. Where they distinctly modify a par- 
ticular word, they are not parenthetical, and must 
not be cut off by commas. Some writers do not 
isolate all of these terms, even when they are par- 
enthetical. The comma is often omitted in the case 
of too, also, therefore, or perhaps; especially when 
they are so introduced as not to interfere with the 
harmonious flow of the sentence, or when the sen- 
tence is short. 

EXERCISE III 

Name the independent expressions in the follow- 
ing sentences. Insert commas where they are 
needed: 

1. You are to speak frankly over-confident. 

2. I pray Thee Lord that I may be beautiful 
within. 

3. This by the way is where Washington Irving 
once lived. 



PUNCTUATION 105 

4. The fault dear Brutus is not in our stars. 

5. This to say nothing worse is regrettable. 

6. It is mind after all which does the work of 
the world. 

7. On the other hand there is great danger in 
delay. 

8. Besides it may promote the healthfulness of 
the town. 

9. velvet bee you're a dusty fellow. 

10. His father being dead the prince ascended the 
throne. 

11. Then came Jesus the doors being shut and 
stood in their midst. 

12. Thou knowest come what may that the light 
of truth can never be put out. 

13. The sea being smooth we went for a sail. 

14. Again let us consider the consequences of such 
conduct. 

15. death where is thy sting? grave where is 
thy victory? 

3. The Comma with Intermediate Expressions.— 
An intermediate expression which interrupts the 
thought or the grammatical order of a sentence 
should be set off by a comma or commas; as— 

Father, I am pleased to say, is very well. Mere 
energy, if not wisely directed, accomplishes but lit- 
tle. I have endeavored, in my previous lectures, to 
show the falsity of some current maxims. 

a. Intermediate expressions are phrases or 
clauses which come between the essential parts of 



106 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

a sentence, as between subject and predicate, be- 
tween a verb and its complement, or between the 
parts of a quotation. They closely resemble paren- 
thetical expressions. 

EXERCISE IV 

Insert needed commas in the following sentences: 

1. This magazine if you are willing I shall take 
home with me. 

2. He gave I am told all that he had. 

3. "Let me make the ballads of a nation" said 
Fletcher of Saltoun "and I care not who makes its 
laws." 

4. Prudence as well as courage is necessary to 
success in the conflict of life. 

5. The brightest pupil may from want of applica- 
tion fail to achieve success in school work. 

6. Nature through all her works delights in 
variety. 

7. Man in his higher moods aspires to Gfod. 

8. Classical studies regarded merely as a means 
of culture are deserving of serious attention. 

9. There is no flock however watched and tended 
but one dead lamb is there. 

10. Phrases and clauses when not restrictive are 
set off by commas. 

b. An intermediate phrase may be restrictive; 
i. e., inseparable in thought from what it modifies; 
in that case it is not separated from the rest of 
the sentence; as, The man with a tvhite beard is 



PUNCTUATION 107 

my uncle. The tree by the bridge was blown down 
last night. The clock standing in the hall is a hun- 
dred years old. 

4. The Comma with Appositional Expressions.— 
An appositive noun, with its modifiers, is set off by a 
comma or commas. A title or a degree when it fol- 
lows the name of a person, is separated from the name 
by a comma ; as — 

Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, 
comes dancing from the east. The author of this 
book is David Starr Jordan, LL. D. 

a. In such constructions as the following, no 
comma is needed : The poet Lowell was a great lin- 
guist. Paul the apostle was a zealous missionary. 
The astronomer Herschel made many discoveries. 

EXERCISE V 

Complete the punctuation of the following: 

1. But Hope the charmer lingered still behind. 

2. Out of this nettle danger we pluck this flower 
safety. 

3. And he their prince shall rank among my peers. 

4. Diogenes the Greek philosopher was a cynic. 

5. Woodrow Wilson Ph D LL D is the president 
of Princeton University. 

6. George Lyman Kittredge A M has written 
much on language and kindred subjects. 

7. It became necessary to remove this rebel this 
monster this serpent this firebrand. 



108 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

8. This proposition that paper money should be 
made a full legal tender has been fully discussed. 

9. Earth's noblest thing a woman perfected. 

5. Words or Phrases in Pairs. — Words or phrases 
in pairs take a comma after each pair ; as — 

The rich and the poor, the strong and the weak, 
the young and the old, have one common Father. 
In peace or in war, in good or in evil report, Wash- 
ington was always the same calm, self-sustained 
gentleman. Interest and ambition, honor and shame, 
friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are 
the prime movers in public transactions. 

6. Contrasted Words or Phrases. — Words or phrases 
placed in contrast to each other are separated by a 
comma; as — 

The battle, but not honor, is lost. Not failure, 
but low aim, is crime. 

EXERCISE VI 

Where, according to rule 6, are commas needed 
in the folloiving sentences? 

1. Truth is not a stagnant pool but a fountain. 

2. There are few voices but many echoes in the 
world. 

3. It is never our tenderness we repent of but 
our severity. 

4. Vainly but well the chieftain fought. 

5. Though he slay me yet will I trust him. 

6. Liberal not lavish is kind Nature's hand. 



PUNCTUATION 109 

7. Death thinned their ranks but could not shake 
their souls. 

8. We live in deeds not years; in thoughts not 
breaths; in feelings not in figures on a dial. 

9. Not failure but low aim is crime. 

10. Condemn the fault but not the actor of it. 

11. We walk by faith not by sight. 

12. I will speak daggers to her but use none. 

7. Omitted Words. — When a word readily under- 
stood and necessary to the sense is omitted, the omis- 
sion is usually indicated bya comma ; as — 

Carthage has crossed the Alps; Rome, the sea. 
Theodore Roosevelt was elected President of the 
United States, November 8, 1904. 

EXERCISE VII 

Complete the punctuation of the following sen- 
tences: 

1. The former of these tendencies was repre- 
sented by the Jews ; the latter by the Greeks. 

2. A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool 
in others. 

3. From law arises security; from security curi- 
osity; from curiosity knowledge. 

4. Iron sharpens iron ; scholar the scholar. 

5. I met Captain Fowler in Dayton Ohio June 
21 1899. 

6. Histories make men wise; poems witty; the 
mathematics subtle ; natural philosophy deep ; moral 



110 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

philosophy grave; logic and rhetoric able to con- 
tend. 

7. He follows his destiny; I mine. 

8. Virtue brings its own reward; vice its own 
punishment. 

9. Columbus discovered the New World Friday 
October 12 1492. 

10. Luck relies on chance; labor on character. 

Note. — An omitted verb is not marked if there are but two 
clauses, and a conjunction is inserted between them. Neither 
is the omission marked when the clauses are followed by a modifier 
that qualifies them all alike. "In a very light and vivacious 
composition the ellipsis of the verb is not usually marked." Thus: 
Charles makes the more rapid progress in language, but Albert 
in science. Plato was the more speculative, but Bacon the more 
practical, in philosophy. The animals fled to the forest, and we 
to the shelter of the nearest hut. 

8. A Comma after a Long Subject.— If the subject 
of a sentence is very long, especially if it contains a 
comma or commas within itself, or if it ends with a 
verb, it is almost always followed by a comma ; as — 

That the work of forming and perfecting the 
character is difficult, is universally admitted. What- 
ever is, is not necessarily right. That Mary Queen 
of Scots, hardly inferior to Elizabeth in intellectual 
power, stood high above her in fire and grace, and 
brilliancy of temper, admits of no doubt. The mind 
by passion driven from its firm hold, becomes a 
feather to each wind that blows. The painter who 
is content with the praise of the world for what 



PUNCTUATION 111 

does not satisfy himself, is not an artist, but an ar- 
tisan. 

Note. — When a noun clause is in apposition to a preceding 
noun, the noun and the clause are separated by a comma; as, 
Who has not heard the trite aphorism, that seeing is believing? 

9. The Comma in Compound Elements. — (a) The 
clauses of a compound sentence, if short, and simple 
in construction, are usually separated from each 
other by a comma or commas, (b) The parts of a 
compound predicate, if they are long, or have dif- 
ferent modifiers, are separated by commas. 

Examples: Csesar was dead, the senators were 
dispersed, all Rome was in confusion. Lose an hour 
in the morning, and you will be all day hunting for 
it. Woe unto him that is never alone, and can not 
bear to be alone. Beauty flows in the waves of 
light, radiates from the human face divine, and 
sparkles in the pathway of every child. 

EXERCISE VIII 

Insert in the following sentences all needed com- 
mas: 

1. He ran and jumped into the pond. 

2. Thus he spoke and willingly they heeded and 
obeyed. 

3. I appreciate your motives but I can not ac- 
cept the aid you proffer. 

4. He was a good athlete and when it came to 
books he proved himself a good student. 



112 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

5. A man of cultivated imagination can converse 
with a picture and find an agreeable companion in 
a statue. 

6. She added butter and milk and I have forgot- 
ten what else. 

7. There we found shade trees and benches to 
rest on. 

8. The morning stars sang together and all the 
sons of God shouted for joy. 

9. We have met the enemy and they are ours. 

10. He heaps up riches and knows not who shall 
gather them. 

11. The fathers have eaten sour grapes and the 
children's teeth are set on edge. 

12. That fellow seems to me to possess but one 
idea and that is a wrong one. 

13. They have sown the wind and they shall reap 
the whirlwind. 

14. Resist the devil and he will flee from you. 

15. Forsake not an old friend for the new is not 
comparable with him. 

16. Be not overcome of evil but overcome evil 
with good. 

Note. — When an explanatory noun or phrase is introduced ■ 
by the word or, a comma is placed before or; as, Maize, or Indian 
corn, is grown more extensively in the United States than in 
any other country. 

Note. — ' f If one of two or more words . or phrases which are 
in the same construction has a modifier which belongs to itself 
only, this word or phrase with its modifiers should be separated 



PUNCTUATION 113 

from the rest of the sentence by commas ; ? ' as, The good of the 
school, and the good of the individual pupil, necessitated the 
enforcement of the rule. 

10. Non-Restrictive Phrases and Clauses. — Use 
commas to set off adjective phrases and clauses when 
they are not restrictive. 

An adjective phrase or clause is restrictive when 
it can not be omitted without destroying the sense. 
Such a phrase or clause narrows or restricts the 
meaning of what it modifies. In the sentence, "He 
that overcometh shall inherit all things," the ad- 
jective clause "that overcometh" is restrictive; for 
it restricts the meaning of the predicate "shall in- 
herit all things" to one kind of person; namely, the 
one that overcomes. Not every person shall inherit 
all things. 

In the sentence, "The books lying on the table 
belong to the teacher," the participial phrase "ly- 
ing on the table" is restrictive, because it points out 
or specifies tvhat books belong to the teacher. 

A non-restrictive clause is really equivalent to an 
additional thought. In the sentence, "Ichabod, who 
had no relish for this strange midnight companion, 
now quickened his steed," the clause is non-restrict- 
ive, the sentence being equivalent to "Ichabod now 
quickened his steed," and the additional statement, 
"Ichabod had no relish for this strange midnight 
companion." The relative clause does not limit the 
sense of the predicate to a particular Ichabod, in 
distinction to other Ichabods. 



114 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

EXERCISE IX 

In the following sentences insert all needed com- 
mas. Some of the sentences need no further punc- 
tuation: 

1. Winfield who really had worked very hard 
felt that he deserved some remuneration. 

2. The moon which was covered with clouds last 
night is bright this evening. 

3. His face which was easy to see at that dis- 
tance was ruddy. 

4. Some men are like pyramids which are very 
broad where they touch the ground but grow nar- 
row as they reach the sky. 

5. Learn to be good readers which is perhaps a 
more difficult thing than you imagine. 

6. The moons that revolve around Jupiter are 
invisible to the naked eye. 

7. Men are like sheep of which a flock is more 
easily driven than a single one. 

8. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom and 
the man that getteth understanding. 

9. The man whom we saw just now is my cousin 
Clarence. 

10. Give this to the girl having the highest mark 
in English composition. 

11. Take the road turning to the right just be- 
yond the barn. 

12. The gain which is made at the expense of 
reputation should be considered a loss. 



PUNCTUATION 115 

13. That style is best and purest which needs 
the fewest sign-posts to its sentences. 

14. The stars which twinkle are distant suns 
shining like our sun with their own light; those 
which do not twinkle are worlds like our earth and 
are rolling with it about our sun at various distances. 

15. He that loveth Me shall be loved of My Father. 

16. The images carved on the ceiling were over- 
laid with gold. 

17. The soldiers fearing an attack slept on their 
arms. 

18. The lecture given by Mr. Parker was highly 
praised. 

19. The strong man trusting in himself forgets 
caution. 

20. Give me the charity which delights not in 
exposing the weaknesses of others but "covereth all 
things. " 

21. There are two men in the world who are per- 
fectly happy. The first is the wholly ignorant man 
who is happy because he thinks that he knows every- 
thing. The second is the really learned man who 
is happy because he knows that there will always 
be something for him to learn. — Persian Proverb. 

22. The man that hath no music in himself 
Nor is not moved with concord of sweet 

sounds 
Is fit for treason's stratagems and spoils. 

Note. — When a relative pronoun refers to two or more nouns 
or pronouns as its antecedents, the adjective clause introduced by 



116 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

such relative pronoun, whether restrictive or not, is preceded by 
a comma; as, He had hopes, fears, and longings, which his friends 
could not share. 

11. The Comma with Adverbial Phrases and 
Clauses. — An adverbial phrase or clause, unless short 
and closely connected with the word that it modifies, 
should be separated from the rest of the sentence by 
a comma. If an adverbial phrase or clause comes 
first, or is transposed, it is almost always followed 
by commas; as^ — 

Though the mills of God grind slowly, yet they 

grind exceeding small; 
Though with patience He stands waiting, with 

exactness grinds He all. 

Where the average of virtue and intelligence is 
high, higher forms of government are possible. 

EXERCISE X 

Name the adverbial elements in the following sen- 
tences. Insert commas wherever they are needed: 

1. As soon as he had left Portia sent a message 
to Padua. 

2. In the confusion that followed Harry Jones 
was forgotten. 

3. In whatever we attempt attention is of prime 
importance. 

4. In the cold and darkness a poor little girl 
with bare head and naked feet roamed through the 
streets. 



PUNCTUATION 117 

5. The tree will not bear fruit in autumn unless 
it blossoms in spring. 

6. If wishes were horses beggars might ride. 

7. Where there is no tale-bearer strife ceaseth. 

8. If the young are taught how to think they 
will soon learn what to think. 

9. The season must have been a rainy one for 
vegetation is rank. 

10. When a miser has lost his hoard he has noth- 
ing left to comfort him. 

11. On scanty rations besieged on every side 
knowing that hope of succor or escape was vain 
the garrison has fought with a stubbornness that 
has evoked the admiration of the world. 

12. For the purpose of helping the backward 
please explain the problem again. 

13. In the little brown house below the hill you 
will find a family of bright youngsters. 

14. You may go when you please. (Connection 
close.) 

15. We will go if you wish. (Close.) 

16. You will reap as you sow. (Close.) 

17. In the morning we will go to them. (Close.) 

18. When no man is watching you be afraid of 
yourself. 

19. Even if a donkey goes traveling he will not 
come home a horse. 

20. He ran as far as he could when he fell ex- 
hausted. 

21. Of those present four favored the plan. 



118 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

22. If all sentences consisted of but one simple 
statement not more than half a dozen words in 
length we should need only the period to punctuate 
them. 

23. You'll be sorry if you do. (Close.) 

24. Look where I point. (Close.) 

25. By all means come. (Short and close.) 

12. The Comma after and before a Quotation. — 
When a direct quotation is a part of a sentence, it 
should, as a rule, be separated from the rest of the 
sentence by a comma or commas ; as — 

"I see it," was the cool reply of the captain. "My 
style was not formed without great care, and earnest- 
study of the best authors," said Webster. "The 
object of education," said the philosopher Kant, 
"is to develop in each individual all the perfection 
of which he is susceptible." 

Note. — When a quotation is long or when it is formally in- 
troduced, a colon should be placed before it; as, Spurgeon puts 
these words into the mouth of John Ploughman : ' ' Shirt-sleeves 
rolled up lead on to best broadcloth; and he who is not ashamed 
of the apron will soon be able to do without it." 

13. "Yes" and "No."— "Yes" or "No," according 
to its use, may be followed by a comma, a semi- 
colon, a colon, a period, an interrogation point, an 
exclamation point, or a dash. When "yes" or "no" 
is only a part of an answer, it is almost always fol- 
lowed by a comma; as — 

Shall you vote the Prohibition ticket? — Yes, I 
shall. Do you like to play football? — No, I never 
did like rough games. 



PUNCTUATION 119 

THE SEMICOLON 

1. The Semicolon between Clauses. — When one or 
more clauses of a compound sentence contain a 
comma or commas, they should be separated by a 
semicolon; as — 

The path of duty is a plain and safe path; that 
of falsehood, a perplexing maze. Man is unjust, 
but God is just; and finally justice triumphs. Pros- 
perity is naturally, though not necessarily, attached 
to virtue and merit ; adversity to folly and vice. 

Note. — When the clauses of a compound sentence are very 
short and closely connected, they are sometimes separated by a 
comma though they contain commas. This is largely a matter 
of the writer's taste. 

EXERCISE XI 

Complete the punctuation of the following sen- 
tences: 

1. Our first work is to lay the foundation our 
second to build the superstructure. 

2. To be perfectly just is the prerogative of God 
to be so to the utmost of our ability is the glory 
of man. 

3. It is the mind that makes the body rich and 
as the sun breaks through the darkest clouds so 
honor peereth in the meanest habit. 

4. Laziness grows on people it begins in cob- 
webs and ends in iron chains. 



120 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

5. The point on the horizon at which the sun 
rises is called the east at which it sets the west. 

6. The small courtesies sweeten life the greater 
ennoble it. 

7. Some faces are in their brightness a prophecy 
and some in their sadness a history. 

8. Wear your learning like your watch in a pri- 
vate pocket and do not pull it out and stroke it 
merely to show that you have one. 

9. If you want knowledge you must toil for it 
if food you must toil for it and if pleasure you 
must toil for it. Toil is the law. 

10. The sky was cloudless the sun shone out 
bright and warm the songs of birds and hum of 
myriad insects filled the air the cottage garden 
crowded with every rich and beautiful tint sparkled 
in the heavy dew like beds of glittering jewels. 

2. The Semicolon between Independent Sentences. 
— A semicolon, instead of a period, is placed between 
independent sentences so closely related in thought 
that it is undesirable to separate them with a period ; 
as — 

Nothing is difficult ; it is only we who are indolent. 
Ingratitude is the abridgment of all baseness; a 
fault never found unattended with other vices. The 
blue sky now turned more softly gray; the great 
watch-stars shut up their holy eyes; the east began 
to kindle. 



PUNCTUATION 121 

EXERCISE XII 

Insert, in the following sentences, all needed semi- 
colons: 

1. Genius begins great works labor alone fin- 
ishes them. 

2. He that forgets his friend is ungrateful to 
him but he that forgets his Saviour is unmerciful 
to himself. 

3. God intends no man to live in this world with- 
out working but it seems to me no less evident that 
He intends every man to be happy in his work. 

4. To acquire a few tongues is the task of a few 
years but to be eloquent in one is the labor of a life. 

5. Lying lips are an abomination unto the Lord 
but they that deal truly are His delight. 

6. Straws' swim at the surface but pearls lie at 
the bottom. 

7. A lie which is half a truth is ever the blackest 

of lies 

A lie which is all a lie may be met and fought 
with outright 

But a lie which is part a truth is a harder mat- 
ter to fight. —Tennyson. 

3. The Semicolon before Introductory Terms. — 
When "as," "e. g.," "i. e.," "viz.," "to wit," "namely," 
"that is," or "thus," introduces an example, a semi- 
colon should be placed before it. These terms are 
almost always followed by a comma, but occasionally 
by a colon or a colon and a dash; as — 



122 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

There are four eminent American historians; 
namely, George Bancroft, W. H. Prescott, J. L. 
Motley, and Francis Parkman. He always went into 
the darkest and deepest recesses; that is, he took 
up the part which no man had touched. 

The student should find additional illustrations of this rule. 

4. Clauses Having a Common Dependence. — A series 
of clauses having a common dependence are usually 
separated by semicolons, to give greater emphasis to 
each; as — 

That benevolence which prompted Jesus to in- 
cessant exertions; which supported Him through 
unparalleled suffering; which was alike the soul 
of His discourses, His actions, His miracles; which 
shone through His life and His death; whose splen- 
dors were around His brow when He expired on 
the cross, and when He sat down on the right hand 
of the Majesty on high, — what is it but a glorious 
revelation of the glorious truth that God is love? 
The honorable member may perhaps find that, in 
that contest, there will be blows to take as well 
as blows to give; that others can state comparisons 
as significant, at least, as his own; and that his 
impunity may possibly demand of him whatever 
powers of taunt and sarcasm he may possess. 

Note. — The phrases of a series, when they are long, — especially 
if they are somewhat complicated, and some or all of them con- 
tain commas, — may be separated by semicolons; as, If we think 
of glory in the field ; of wisdom in the cabinet ; of the purest 



PUNCTUATION 123 

patriotism; of the highest integrity, public and private; of 
morals without a stain; of religious feeling without intolerance 
and without extravagance, — the august character of Washington 
presents itself as the personification of all of them. 

EXERCISE XIII 

Complete the punctuation of the following sen- 
tences: 

1. He told us how he had been left alone on the 
island how for many days he had lived upon berries, 
roots, and the bark of trees how at last when nearly 
dead with hunger and exposure to cold winds he 
had been rescued. 

2. We hold these truths to be self-evident, — that 
all men are created equal that they are endowed by 
their Creator with certain inalienable rights that 
among these are life liberty and the pursuit of hap- 
piness. 

3. To give an early preference to honor above gain 
when they stand in competition to despise every ad- 
vantage that can not be attained without dishonest 
acts to brook no meanness and to stoop to no dis- 
simulations, are the indications of a great mind. 

4. Perfect wisdom hath four parts viz., wisdom 
the principle of doing things aright justice the prin- 
ciple of doing things equally in public and private 
fortitude the principle of not flying danger but meet- 
ing it and temperance the principle of subduing 
desires and living moderately. 



124 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

5. Make sure that however good you may be you 
have your faults that however dull you may be you 
can find out what they are and that however slight 
they may be you would better make some patient 
effort to get quit of them. — Ruskin. 

6. The ground strewed with the dead and dying 
the impetuous charge the steady and successful re- 
pulse the loujd call to repeated assault — all these you 
have witnessed. 

7. He was courteous not cringing to superiors af- 
fable not familiar to equals and kind but not con- 
descending to inferiors. 

THE COLON 

In regard to the office of the colon, Mr. Alfred 
M. Hitchcock says : "When the reader sees the colon, 
he assumes at once that what follows it will be an 
enumeration, an explanation of something which has 
gone before. ... It has been called the mark 
of 'expectancy or anticipation/ " 

1. The Colon with Introductory Expressions. — A 
colon is placed before a direct quotation, an argu- 
ment, a speech, or a list of particulars, when for- 
mally introduced. 

Note. — We learned, when we studied the uses of the comma, 
that a short quotation, when not formally introduced, should have 
a comma, instead of a colon, placed before it. An introduction 
is formal if it is made by such expressions as the following, as 
follows, these, in these words, this, and sometimes thus, and 



PUNCTUATION 125 

The following sentences illustrate the foregoing 
rule: 

When the Romans were clamoring, at a time of 
scarcity, for a distribution of corn at the public ex- 
pense, Cato began a speech in opposition to it, thus : 
"It is hard, fellow-citizens, to address the stomach, 
because it has no ears." His words were these : 
"If I am guilty, punish me." Lord Bacon has 
summed up the whole matter in the following words : 
"A little philosophy inclineth men's minds to athe- 
ism; but depths in philosophy bringeth men's minds 
to religion." These are the terms : No cure, no pay. 

2. The Colon before a Series of Particulars Separa- 
ted by Semicolons. — In an enumeration of particulars, 
if the parts are separated from one another by semi- 
colons, they should be separated from the general 
term by a colon; as — 

Three things too much, and three too little are 
pernicious to man : to speak much, and know little ; 
to spend much, and have little; to presume much, 
and to be worth little. 

Mankind has been divided into five different races : 
the White, or Caucasian Race, named from the Cau- 
casus Mountains; the Yellow, or Mongolian Race, 
which includes the Chinese and Japanese; the Red, 
or American Race, which includes the American In- 
dians ; the Black, or Ethiopian Race, which inhabits 
the interior of Africa; and the Brown, or Malayan 



126 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Race, which includes all the other barbarous in- 
habitants of the world. — Tarbell. 

As a kind of corollary to this rule it should be 
stated that a colon may be used to mark the omis- 
sion of namely, viz., or that is. Formerly a dash 
was used to indicate such an omission, but to-day 
the colon is preferred by reputable writers. 

Examples: Carlyle says, 'There are but two ways 
of paying a debt: increase of industry in raising 
income, increase of thrift in laying out." There are 
at least four varieties of evergreen: pine, spruce, 
cedar, and hemlock. A great lesson which the lives 
of successful men teach us is told in a single word : 
Wait! One secret of success lies in four words: 
Stick to one thing. 

3. The Colon before an Explanatory Clause. — When 
a clause that is in itself a complete sentence, is fol- 
lowed by a clause that explains or illustrates the first 
clause or draws an inference from it, they are sepa- 
rated, as a rule, by a colon if there is no conjunction 
between them; if a conjunction is inserted, by a 
semicolon; as — 

Happiness is not the end of life: character is. 
It is a very easy thing to devise good laws: the 
difficulty is to make them effective. 

'Tis education forms the common mind : 
Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined. 
The greatest truths are the simplest; and so 
are the greatest men. 



PUNCTUATION 127 

EXERCISE XIV 

Punctuate the following sentences: 

1. Knowledge is of two kinds we know a sub- 
ject ourselves or we know where we can find in- 
formation upon it. 

2. He who seldom thinks of heaven is not likely 
to get there the only way to. hit the mark it to keep 
the eye fixed upon it. 

3. To be bold against an enemy is common to 
brutes but to be bold against himself is the preroga- 
tive of man. 

4. Never flatter people leave that to such as mean 
to betray them. 

5. Study to acquire the habit of thinking no 
study is more important. 

6. Satire should not be like a saw but a sword 
it should cut and not mangle. 

7. Some things we can do and others we can not 
do we can walk but we can not fly. 

8. "Unlike the comma and the semicolon the 
colon does not merely separate elements of the sen- 
tence it points out the relation between elements. 

9. The man of one book is always formidable but 
when that book is the Bible he is irresistible. 

10. There are two freedoms the false where a man 
is free to do what he likes the true where a man is 
free to do what he ought. 



128 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

QUOTATION MARKS 

When we copy the exact words of some one, they 
are said to be quoted, and are called a quotation. 
By the reading of books and journals we have doubt- 
less fixed the following rule in mind: 

1. A copied word or passage should be enclosed 
with quotation marks; as — 

"The habit of looking on the bright side of every 
event is worth more than a thousand pounds/' says 
Samuel Johnson. 

If a quotation contains a quotation the latter 
should be enclosed with single quotation marks ; as — 

The pupil answered, "The assertion, 'I would 
rather be right than be president/ was made by 
Henry Clay/' 

2. The title of a book or a journal is sometimes en- 
closed with quotation marks. When such a title is 
printed in italics, it should not be enclosed. 

Direct and Indirect Quotations. — A direct quo- 
tation is a copy of the exact words in which an idea 
or a thought was before expressed. An indirect 
quotation copies or reports the thought, but not 
the exact words of the original. 

Indirect quotations need no quotation marks. 

He said, "I will be responsible for the education 
of the lad/' contains a direct quotation. 

He said that he would be responsible for the edu- 
cation of the lad, contains an indirect quotation. 



PUNCTUATION 129 

3. A quotation consisting of two or more para- 
graphs requires the inverted commas at the begin- 
ning of each paragraph, but the closing marks follow 
the last paragraph only. 

EXERCISE XV 

Punctuate the following and supply capitals where 
they are needed: 

1. His last words were I know that my Redeemer 
liveth. 

2. What can I do for you inquired the salesman. 

3. Our teacher said put your books away and 
I will read to you one of Kipling's poems. 

4. Is the route practicable inquired Napoleon. It 
is barely possible to pass replied the engineer. Then 
forward rejoined Napoleon. 

5. George Eliot declared when death the great 
reconciler has come it is never of our tenderness 
that we repent but of our severity. 

6. I came he said to see the grand procession and 
to hear the people shout long live the queen. 

7. On one occasion says Whittier I was told that 
a foreigner had applied to my mother for lodging. 
What if a son of mine were in a strange land she 
said to herself. 

8. Mr. Simmons cited these words Johnson well 
says he who waits to do a great deal of good at 
once will never do anything. 

9. He said to me as I walked to the telephone 
talk easy listen hard. 



130 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

10. By your continual fault-finding you irritate 
your pupils answered the superintendent. 

THE DASH 

1. Parenthetical expressions too independent in 
construction to admit of commas, are enclosed either 
by dashes or by marks of parenthesis. A parenthet- 
ical expression enclosed by dashes is usually less inde- 
pendent of the context than one enclosed by the 
curves of parenthesis. 

Examples: In truth, the character of the great 
chief was depicted two thousand five hundred years 
before his birth, and depicted — such is the power 
of genius- — in colors which will be fresh as many 
years after his death. The smile of a child — always 
ready when there is no distress, and so soon recur- 
ring when that distress has passed away— is like 
an opening of the sky, showing heaven beyond. Re- 
ligion — who can doubt it — is the noblest theme for 
the exercise of the intellect. There are times — 
they only can understand who know them — when 
passion is dumb, and purest love maintains her own 
dominion. To Anderson — a young man of fancy — 
everything in Italy was a delight. 

2. A dash is used to mark an abrupt change either 
in the construction or in the thought or sentiment; 
as — 

Her soul was noble — in her own opinion. Was 
there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band? 



PUNCTUATION 131 

Was there ever — but I scorn to boast. Then he 
turned to the future — and ordered his dinner. If 
you will give me your attention, I will show you — 
but stop; I do not know that you wish to hear me. 
Have you ever seen — but of course you never have. 
He had no malice in his mind — no freckles on his 
nose. Moses, Joshua, Gideon, David, Daniel, — these 
are the names that impart luster to Jewish history. 

3. A pause or a repetition that is intended for em- 
phasis or elocutionary effect is usually indicated by a 
dash; as — 

There is one quality which everywhere charac- 
terizes growth — the quality of repose. Moses, with 
God on the mountain, came down with a shining 
lace — shining so brightly with unconscious power 
that the people could not look upon him until he 
was veiled. If I were an American, as I am an 
Englishmen, while a foreign troop were landed in 
my country, I would never lay down my arms — 
never, never, never! 

Yet we in Oxford, brought up amidst the beauty 
and sweetness of that beautiful place, have not failed 
to seize one truth, — the truth that beauty and sweet- 
ness are essential characters of a complete human 
perfection. 

4. A period and dash are inserted, as a rule, at the 
end of a side head, as shown in the following note : 



132 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Note. — The dash should not be used carelessly in place of 
the other marks of punctuation. The abuse of the dash is char- 
acteristic of lazy writers. — Herrick and Damon. 

The student should notice the use of the dash 
at the end of the foregoing note. 

5. A dash may be used between figures or letters 
to denote that the intervening figures or letters are 
to be included ; it may be used, too, to denote the 
omission of figures, letters, or words ; as — 

Jackson was president 1829 — 1836. 

He was born in 18 — , in , Delaware. 

6. The parts of a dialogue or of a conversation, 
when run into a paragraph instead of beginning sep- 
arate lines, are sometimes separated by dashes ; as — 

"Shall you attend school this year?"— "I shall." 
MARKS OF PARENTHESIS; BRACKETS 

1. A word, phrase, clause, or sentence inserted 
where it is not necessary to the sense or the construc- 
tion, as for explanation, qualification, or any similar 
purpose, should be enclosed within marks of paren- 
thesis; as — 

Know this truth (enough for any man to know) : 
God is love. My new bicycle (Is it not handsome?) 
is of the latest design. 

2. In reports of speeches, marks of parenthesis are 
used to enclose remarks of approval or disapproval by 



PUNCTUATION 133 

the audience, and to enclose the name of the person 
indicated by a pronoun, by gestures, or otherwise; 
as — 

Mr. Chairman, I beg leave to ask the gentleman 
from Iowa (Mr. Allison) a question which he would 
prefer to answer elsewhere (here, here)." 

3. Numerals when employed for the sake of a clear 
enumeration of the parts or divisions of a general 
subject, are sometimes enclosed by marks of paren- 
thesis. An interrogation point or an exclamation 
point is sometimes similarly enclosed to indicate a 
query or a doubt. 

4. The Brackets [] are used to enclose an interpo- 
lation, which is intended to correct an error, afford 
an explanation, supply an omission, or give a refer- 
ence; as — 

'''The jury is [are] not agreed." "Webster was 
more eloquent than any [other] orator of his day. ' ' 

Dr. Hart says : "The brackets are used to enclose 
a sentence, or a part of a sentence, within the body 
of another sentence, and thus far are like the marks 
of parenthesis. But the matter included within 
brackets is entirely independent of the sentence, and 
so differs from what is merely parenthetical. Fur- 
ther, the matter within the brackets is usually in- 
serted by one writer to correct or add to what has 
been written by another, while the parenthesis is 
a part of the original composition, and is written 
by the same person that wrote the rest of the sen- 
tence/' 



134 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

EXERCISE XVI 

Guided by the foregoing rules and principles, the 
student should, to the best of his ability, punctuate 
the following sentences: 

1. Nellie has beautiful golden hair but lets it go 
unkempt. 

2. If a verb can represent its subject as act- 
ing on something it is called transitive. 

3. Some nouns like gnome and fairy name things 
that are unreal. 

4. Grant said I will fight it out on this line if it 
takes all summer. 

5. Certain pronouns are used as subjects but 
not as objects. These are the following / he she 
we they ivho and whoever. 

6. The true and noble way to kill a foe is not 
to kill him you with kindness may so change him 
that he shall cease to be a foe and then he's slain. 

7. Professor A. S. Hill once said Every year 
Harvard sends out men some of them high scholars 
whose manuscripts would disgrace a boy of twelve 
and yet the college can hardly be blamed for she 
can not be expected to conduct an infant school for 
adults. 

8. You may glean knowledge by reading but you 
must separate the chaff from the wheat by thinking. 

9. Brilliancy is well enough but character is bet- 
ter it stands the wear and tear of life. 



PUNCTUATION 135 

10. Anger says Richter wishes that all mankind 
had only one neck love that it had only one heart 
grief two tear-glands pride two bent knees. 

11. The following forms of the personal pronouns 
are used as direct and indirect objects but not as 
subjects me him her us them tvhom whomever. 

12. My St Bernard dog is he not a fine fellow cost 
me twenty-five dollars. 

13. Ill fares the land to hastening ills a prey 
Where wealth accumulates and men decay 
Princes and lords may flourish or may fade 
A breath can make them as a breath has made 
But a bold peasantry their country's pride 
When once destroyed can never be supplied. 

14. He that gathereth in summer is a wise son but 
he that sleepeth in harvest is a son that causeth 
shame. 

15. Alas poor Clifford you are old and worn with 
troubles that ought never to have befallen you. 

16. Pride of all others the most dangerous fault 
Proceeds from want of sense or want of 

thought 

17. Edward Everett Hale gave the students at 
Amherst Agricultural Colloge these three rules 

a Live in the open air all you can. 
b Touch elbows with the rank and file, 
c Speak every day to some one whom you know 
to be your superior. 

18. The human mind is like a millstone in a mill 
when you put wheat under it it turns and grinds and 



136 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

bruises the wheat to flour if you put no wheat it still 
grinds on but then 'tis itself it grinds and wears 
away.— Luther. 

19. Greek's harp we love to hear 
Latin is a trumpet clear 
Spanish like an organ swells 
Italian rings its silver bells 
France with many a frolic mien 
Tunes her sprightly violin 

Loud the German rolls his drum 
When Russia's clashing cymbals come 
But Britain's sons may well rejoice 
For English is the human voice. 

20. Having the king in my hands Cromwell de- 
clared in 1647 I have the Parliament in my pocket 

21. Lincoln who had been chosen president went 
to Washington to be inaugurated. 

22. A man is rich in proportion to the number of 
things which he can afford to let alone. 

23. In the lexicon of youth which fate reserves 
for a bright manhood there's no such word as fail. 

24. In manuscript words to be italicized are un- 
derlined once to be printed in small capitals twice 
in large capitals three times. 

25. The careful writer is sparing in his use of 
italics to denote emphasis not every word that re- 
ceives stress from the voice in oral delivery should 
be italicized. 

26. Water which is oxygen and hydrogen united 
is essential to life. 



PUNCTUATION 137 

27. Daily we verify this saying Man's extremity 
is God's opportunity. 

28. Affectation which is the desire of seeming to 
be what we are not is the besetting sin of men. 

29. Agesilaus the Great hearing one praise an 
orator who had the power of magnifying little things 
said I do not like a shoemaker who puts large shoes 
on small feet. 

30. The Nibelungenlied the great epic of Ger- 
many dates in all probability back to 1200. 

31. The Puritans recognized no title of superiority 
but the favor of God and confident of that favor they 
despised all the accomplishments and all the digni- 
ties of the world. 

32. Idleness is emptiness the tree in which the 
sap is stagnant remains fruitless. 

33. He had to choose one of three things w r ealth 
but wealth gained dishonestly fame but fame un- 
justly acquired or poverty with honor and happiness. 

34. What a piece of work is man How noble in 
reason how infinite in faculty in form and moving 
how express and admirable in action, how like an 
angel in apprehension, how like a god 

35 The best thing to give to your enemy is for- 
giveness to an opponent tolerance ... to your 
child a good example to a father deference to your 
mother that which will gladden her heart to your- 
self respect to all men charity." 

36. In describing the vast influence of a perfect 
orator over the feelings and passions of his audi- 



138 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

ence Sheridan forcibly says Notwithstanding the 
diversity of minds in such a multitude by the light- 
ning of eloquence they are melted into one mass the 
whole assembly actuated in one and the same way 
become as it were but one man and have but one 
voice. The universal cry is Let us march against 
Philip let us fight for our liberties let us conquer 
or die. 

37. He sometimes counsel takes and sometimes 
snuff. 

38. The pages of history how is it that they are 
so sad. 

39. Gold what can it not do and undo 

40. For he that soweth to his flesh shall of the 
flesh reap corruption but he that sow r eth to the 
Spirit shall of the Spirit reap life everlasting 

41. Finally brethren whatsoever things are true 
whatsoever things are honest whatsoever things are 
just whatsoever things are pure whatsoever things 
are lovely whatsoever things are of good report if 
there be any virtue and if there be any praise think 
on these things 

EXERCISE XVII 

Justify the punctuation of the following sentences: 

1. Falsehood is in a hurry; it may be at any 
moment detected and punished: truth is calm, se- 
rene; its judgment is on high; its king cometh out 
of the chambers of eternity. 



PUNCTUATION 139 

2. Every one wishes to have truth on his side, 
but it is not every one that sincerely wishes to be 
on the side of truth. 

3. St. Edmund of Canterbury was right when 
he said to some one, "Work as though you would 
live forever; live as though you would die to-day." 

4. Drummond once wrote : "There is a disease 
called 'touchiness' — a disease which, in spite of its 
innocent name, is one of the gravest sources of rest- 
lessness in the world." 

5. If you once ask the devil to dinner, it will 
be hard to get tiim out of the house again; better 
to have nothing to do with him. 

6. If you want to sleep soundly, buy a bed of a 
man who is in debt; surely it must be a very soft 
one, or he never could have rested so easy on it. 

7. Cast forth thy act, thy word, into the ever- 
living, ever-working universe; it is a seed-grain 
that can not die; unnoticed to-day, it will be found 
flourishing as a banyan grove; perhaps, alas, as 
a hemlock forest, after a thousand years. 

8. Education is a companion which no misfor- 
tune can depress, no crime destroy, no enemy alien- 
ate, no despotism enslave. At home, a friend; 
abroad, an introduction; in solitude, a solace; and 
in society, an ornament. Without it, what is man? 
— a splendid slave, a reasoning savage. 

9. We live in deeds, not years; in thoughts, not 

breaths ; 
In feelings, not in figures on a dial. 



140 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

We should count time by heart-throbs: he 
most lives 
Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the 
best. 

10. Caesar had his Brutus; Charles the First, his 
Cromwell; and George the Third ['Treason !" cried 
the Speaker] — may profit by their example. If this 
be treason, make the most of it. 

11. As long as he [William the Silent] lived, he 
was the guiding-star of a whole brave nation; and 
when he died, the little children cried in the streets. 

12. A course in composition should accomplish 
two results : it should enable the pupil to make his 
thoughts clear to others, and it should develop his 
appreciation of good literature. 

13. Stand! the ground's your own, my braves! 
Will ye give it up to slaves ? 

Will ye look for greener graves? 

Hope ye mercy still? 
What's the mercy despots feel? 
Hear it in that battle peal! 
Read it on yon bristling steel! 

Ask it, ye who will! 

14. Ay, call it holy ground, 

The soil where first they trod ; 
They have left unstained what there they 
found, — 
Freedom to worship God. 

— Felicia Hemans. 



PART THREE 



Letter-Writing 



Being the most useful of the several kinds of 
composition, letter- writing should be — if there is any 
difference — the most thoroughly mastered. Not 
every person can reasonably aspire to write essays 
or books for the general reader, but every person 
writes letters. What one needs to do so often, one 
should learn to do well. Only one letter in a hundred 
would, perhaps, be adjudged a model letter in both 
form and matter. At least the mechanical requisites 
of a good letter should be mastered by every pupil. 

Kinds of Letters. — There are two general classes 
of letters : Informal or private, and formal or busi- 
ness letters. A good business letter is clear, cour- 
teous, and brief. Its language is definite. It con- 
veys its meaning in the fewest words consistent with 
ordinary politeness. It observes the best forms of 
address and signature. It is free from brusque re- 
marks and curt abbreviations. It contains nothing 
personal or irrelevant. 

Very different, however, are the tone and manner 
of a personal or social letter. Professor Meiklejohn 
writes : 

"In private letter-writing let yourself go a little — 
be entirely natural. Remember that you are not 
writing in an examination-room. This of itself will 

(141) 



142 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

probably cause you to write in a natural style. Noth- 
ing is so tiresome, nothing gives so little pleasure 
to receive, as a 'composition' letter. In private 
letters anything like a formal style is disagreeable; 
indeed, much more laxity of expression — even to 
colloquialism — is both admissible and pleasant. If 
you are writing to a friend, write to him as you 
would talk to him, and not as if the eye of the ex- 
aminer were always upon you." 

To impart to a social letter the tone that repre- 
sents exactly the relation between the two persons 
is not an easy task. The nicest tact is necessary 
to insure the writer against being too stiff on the 
one hand or too familiar on the other. 

Parts of a Letter. — The conventional letter con- 
sists, as to form, of seven parts: the Heading, the 
Address, the Salutation, the Body or letter proper, 
the Complimentary Close or leave-taking, the Signa- 
ture, and the Superscription, or what is written on 
the envelope. 

By the Heading of a letter is meant the name of 
the place at which the letter is written, and the 
date. If a letter is written in a city, the door num- 
ber, the name of the street, the name of the city, 
and the name of the State should be clearly given. 
If the writer is staying at a hotel or at a school, 
or at any well-known institution, its name takes the 
place of that of the street and the number, as may 
also the number of your post-office box. If the letter 
is written at a village or other country place, the 



LETTER-WRITING 143 

name of the county, as well as that of the post- 
office and that of the State, should be given. 

Begin the heading about an inch and a half from 
the top edge of the paper. The heading should be 
well toward the right-hand edge of the page. When 
it occupies more than one line, the second line should 
begin a little farther to the right than the first, and 
the third a little farther than the second. The date 
always comes last, and should never be omitted. 
But the rest of the heading— the place — need not 
be given in full, if the one to whom the letter is 
written knows perfectly well where the sender lives. 
In social correspondence, but never in a business 
letter, the name of the place and the date may be 
placed below the signature, toward the left edge of 
the page. As a rule, each item of the heading is 
set off by a comma. But some of the present-day 
authorities use the marks of punctuation more spar- 
ingly. For example, Mr. Alfred M. Hitchcock, wrote 
in 1906, regarding the punctuating of the heading 
of a letter: 

"Note that where two or more items are in the 
same line they are separated by the comma, but 
that no comma is placed at the end of a line, and 
no periods are used except after abbreviations. In 
other words, punctuation marks are placed only 
where they are actually needed." 

He then gives this example : 

158 Corporal St., Hartford, Conn. 
Oct. 25, 1904 

10 



144 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Most authorities would insert a comma after the 
period following the abbreviation Conn., and a period 
after 190 U. At any rate, both methods are correct. 
The taste of the writer must determine which 
method he shall adopt. 

The following headings illustrate both methods: 

Sunbury, Pa., July 8, 1907. 

Cloverdale, Sonoma Co., Cal. 

June 28, 1907 

Normal School, Chico, Cal., 

August 2, 1907. 

257 South Hill St. 
Los Angeles, Cal. 
Aug. 15, 1907 

The Address consists of two parts: (1) The name 
and title of the person addressed; (2) the name of 
the place to which the letter is to be sent. The ad- 
dress begins about half an inch from the left edge 
of the paper, and may occupy one, two, or three 
lines just below the heading, symmetrically arranged. 

Except in business letters the address is some- 
times put near the left margin on the line below 
the signature. In familiar letters the address is 
usually omitted. 

The Salutation should come a space below the 



LETTER-WRITING 145 

address, in a business letter; in social letters when 
the address is omitted, it comes a space or two below 
the heading. It begins, in either case, near the left 
margin. The salutation is usually followed by a 
colon, or, less commonly, by a comma and a dash. 
What the salutation should be varies with circum- 
stances. Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Sir, Dear Sirs, Sirs, 
Gentlemen, Dear Madam, My dear Madam, and 
Mesdames, are used in business correspondence, and 
in letters to strangers or to those with whom the 
sender is not intimately acquainted. Dear Madam, 
is the proper salutation in a letter to a married or 
to an unmarried woman with whom one is not ac- 
quainted ; but it is also proper to write My dear Miss 
Blank. In social correspondence one may use My 
dear Mr. Blank, My dear Mrs. Blank, and My dear 
Miss Blank. 

In familiar, or friendly letters, a wide range of 
salutations are permissible; as, Dear Henry, My 
dear Arthur, Dear Margaret, My dear Kate, Dear 
Friend, Dear Cousin, Dear Uncle, My dear Boy, 
My dear Wife, and so forth. 

The following forms of address and salutation 
should be studied with special regard to punctuation 
and the use of capitals: 

Miss Mary F. Smith, 

235 Clark St., Chicago. 
Dear Madam, — 

Please accept my thanks, etc. 



146 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Miss Mary F. Smith, 
235 Clark St., 
Chicago, III. 
Dear Madam : 

Please, etc. 

Messrs. J. Scott & Co., 
181 State St., 
Boston, Mass. 
Dear Sirs: 

The Century Co., 

Union Square, New York. 
Gentlemen, — Enclosed please find my, etc. 

Messrs. Dempsey & Carroll, 

Art Stationers, 
26 West 23d Street, New York City. 
Gentlemen, — Will you kindly send me, etc. 

To His Honor, the Mayor of New York. 
Sir, — May I ask the favor of your kind, etc. 

The complimentary close, or leave taking, should 
be placed a space below the body of the letter. Its 
position varies slightly, according to its length. 
As a rule, it should begin about half way between 
the right and left edges of the paper; and, if occu- 
pying two or more lines, should slope to the right, 
like the address. It is separated from the signature 
by a comma. Each line of the complimentary close 
should begin with a capital. In business letters, in 



LETTER-WRITING 147 

letters to strangers or to superiors, it may be, Yours 
truly, Very truly yours, Respectfully yours, Sincerely 
yours, Yours sincerely, or Very sincerely yours. In 
letters of friendship or of affection more endearing 
terms may be used; as, Your sincere friend, Your 
loving daughter, Your affectionate mother, Yours 
cordially, Sincerely and gratefully yours, Yours with 
love, With kindest regards, ever your friend, and 
so on. 

In an ordinary business letter it is always safe 
to use Yours truly, or Very truly yours. The forms 
with sincerely are more intimate and less formal. 
Unless special respect is intended, Respectfully 
yours should not be used. It is the proper form 
when writing to a high official or to a person much 
older than oneself. 

Note carefully how capitals are used in the com- 
plimentary leave-taking. 

The signature comes a space below the compli- 
mentary close, and toward the right edge of the 
paper. The signature should be so written as to 
enable the person addressed to know at once the 
proper title to use in answer. When writing to a 
stranger, a woman should prefix to her signature, 
her title, Miss or Mrs., enclosed within brackets or 
curves of parenthesis; or, if she prefers, she may 
write below and to the left of her signature, Please 
address Miss Blanche Andrews. A man, when writ- 
ing to a stranger should write his first name in full. 



148 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

J. M. Smith might mean Joseph M. Smith, Mrs. 
Jane M. Smith, or Miss Julia M. Smith. 

Notice the capitals, the punctuation, and the form 
of the following models : 

Yours with sincere esteem, 
Walter J. Otis. 

I have the honor to be, Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 
William T. Wallace. 

I am very sincerely, 

Your friend, 
Paul E. Everett. 

Sincerely and gratefully yours, 
Henry K. Davis. 

Yours truly, 

Thomas R. Brooks. 

Respectfully yours, 
[Miss] Maude E. Benton. 

The superscription includes the items that are 
written upon the envelope. It is arranged in either 
three or four lines. The first line — the name and 
title — is usually written across the middle of the 
envelope. The lines are so arranged as to cause each 
one to begin farther to the right than the preceding 
one, bringing the name of the state near the lower 
right-hand corner. As the outside of the envelope 



LETTER- WRITING 149 

first attracts the eye of the receiver of a letter, and, 
in a way, introduces the writer, the superscription 
should be as neat and distinct as possible. All flour- 
ishes, all conceits of fancy, should be avoided. It is 
not in good taste to write messages on the envelope ; 
as, "In haste," "Deliver at once," "Important," etc. 
The sign ^ for "in care of," and the symbol # for 
the word "number," have long ago been discarded. 

The writers of the old school insisted that a comma 
should end every line in the superscription but the 
last. This rule is no longer observed. A period 
should of course follow an abbreviation. No other 
punctuation is needed. 

The proper arrangement of the superscription 
varies somewhat with the shape of the envelope. 
Observe the following examples : 



Mr. 


Henry 


F. Watts 




429 


Delmas Ave. 
San Jose 

California 



150 



ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 



Mrs. Marie Alton 

421 Spangler Ave. 
Philadelphia 
Pennsylvania 



The abbreviated forms of state names must be 
written with unmistakable distinctness. It is easy 
in careless writing to confound Cat, and Col.; Pa. 
and Va. and La.; N. Y. and N. J.; Mass and Miss.; 
Penn. and Tenn.; Me. and Mo.; and so on. It is 
both safe, and in good taste, to write the name of 
the State in full. 

The stamp should be placed near the upper right- 
hand corner of the envelope, not only for the sake 
of neatness, but also for the convenience of the post- 
office clerk. 

Titles. — Titles must be used with discrimina- 
tion. Prefix Mr. to a man's name, when no other 
title has displaced Mr.; Messrs. to the names of 
two or more men addressed jointly; Master to the 
name of a boy; Miss to the name of a girl or un- 
married woman; Misses or The Misses to the name 
of two or more unmarried women addressed jointly; 



LETTER-WRITING 151 

Mrs. to the name of a married woman or a widow; 
Dr. (plural Drs.) to the name of a physician; Rev. 
or The Rev. is usually prefixed to the name of a cler- 
gyman, or The Rev. Mr., if his first name is not 
known to the writer; or Rev. before the name and 
D. D. after, if he is a doctor of divinity. Bishops 
of the Episcopol or of the Catholic church are ad- 
dressed The Right Rev., and archbishops, The Most 
Rev. The bishops of the Methodist Episcopal church 
prefer the simpler title of Rev. 

Esq. is added, to the name of a lawyer, of a justice 
of the peace, of a notary public, and sometimes to 
men of more than ordinary social standing. In 
England it is accorded to all untitled owners of 
landed estates, barristers at law, mayors, commis- 
sioned officers in the army and navy, and profes- 
sional men. Esq. and Mr. should never be applied 
to the same name at the same time. The Hon. or 
Hon. (preferably the former) is prefixed to the name 
of a Cabinet officer, a member of Congress, a State 
Senator, a Law Judge, or a Mayor. Prefix His 
Excellency to the name of a Governor or of an Am- 
bassador; as, "To His Excellency the Governor of 
Ohio/' or simply, "To His Excellency the Governor." 
In conversation, the President is addressed as "Mr. 
President;" by foreigners, as "Your Excellency." 

In writing, the form of salutation is, "Mr. Presi- 
dent, Sir;" or, "To His Excellency the President of 
the United States." The complimentary close may 
vary; thus, "I am, sir, your most obedient servant;" 



152 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

"I am most respectfully yours;" "I have the honor 
to be your Excellency's most obedient servant," etc. 
The superscription should be— 



Or, 



Or, 



To the President, 

The White House, 

Washington, D. C. 



To the President of the United States, 
Washington, D. C. 



To His Excellency, 

The President of the United States, 
The White House, 

Washington, D. C. 

The members of the Cabinet are addressed by 
their official titles, with that of Honorable prefixed ; 
as — 

To the Honorable, the Secretary of State. 

The adding of the surname would be superfluous, 
as there is but one Secretary at the same time. The 
same is true of the President. An invitation from a 
member of the Cabinet would begin, — 

The Secretary of State and Mrs. Root request 
the honor of, etc. 

The Vice-President is addressed as, "Mr. Vice- 
President, Sir;" the Chief Justice as, "Mr. Chief 
Justice, Sir." 



LETTER- WRITING 153 

An associate Justice of the Supreme Court is ad- 
dressed simply as, "Mr. Justice," with the surname 
added; thus, "Mr. Justice Gray." The form of the 
superscription is — 

To The Hon. Joseph McKenna, 
Justice of Supreme Court, 
United States, 

Washington, D. C. 

The Head of the Army is addressed thus : 

To Major-General Nelson A Miles, 
Commanding Officer, 
Washington, D. C. 
Or, 

To Major-General Nelson A. Miles, 
Commanding the Army of the U. S., 
Washington, D. C. 

The salutation commonly employed in addressing 
the President, a member of the Cabinet, an officer 
in the Army or Navy, is simply Sir. If the writer 
is on intimate terms with such officer, he may write, 
Dear Sir, or Dear General. 

The Pope is addressed (except by those whose con- 
sciences protest) as — 

His Holiness the Pope. 
Or, 

To Our Most Holy Father, 
Pope Pius X. 



154 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

The salutation: "Most Holy Father," or "Your 
Holiness." 

A Cardinal is addressed as — 

His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons. 

Or, 

To His Eminence the Most Reverend Cardinal Gib- 
bons. 

The salutation is: "Your Eminence," or "Most 
Eminent and Most Reverend Sir." 

Scholastic degrees are nearly always abbreviated. 
Except in college calendars and catalogues, more 
than one such degree is not usually written. If 
Professor Blank is the proud possessor of M. S., 
A. M., Ph. D., LL. D., F. R. S., etc., it would hardly 
be in good taste to string them out on the back of 
an envelope. The highest alone should be given, 
which is, of course, the last received. That usually 
implies the others. Thus: 

Prof. John Blank, LL. D., or 
Dr. John Blank, F. R. S. 

In addressing the President of an institution, his 
official title should be given after the name; as — 

To Benjamin Ide Wheeler, LL. D., 

President of University of California. 

To James R. Parker, 

President First National Bank. 



LETTER-WRITING 155 

Invitations and Replies. — Invitations and re- 
plies are classified as formal and informal. The tone 
and style of informal invitation or reply are deter- 
mined by the state and judgment of the writer. The 
style of a formal note or invitation is governed by 
the comparatively fixed rules of social etiquette. A 
formal invitation is always in the third person. It 
has no heading, no salutation, and no complimentary 
close. As the writer's name appears in the body of 
the invitation, no signature is called for. The day 
of the month is usually written out in full, and the 
year omitted. 

A formal reply follows the style of the invitation, 
and is therefore in the third person. A reply, 
whether formal or informal, should repeat the date 
and hour given in the invitation, to prevent mistake. 
That the host or hostess may know how many guests 
to expect, the reply should in every case be sent at 
once. 

The form and style of invitations and replies can 
be learned most easily by examining the following 
models : 

(Formal invitation.) 

Mr. and Mrs. Arthur J. Phelps request the pleas- 
ure of the company of Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Scott 
at dinner on Thursday evening, October eighth, at 
six o'clock. 

357 Spring Street. 



156 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

(Formal reply accepting.) 

Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Scott accept with pleasure 
Mr. and Mrs. Arthur J. Phelps's kind invitation for 
Thursday evening, October eighth, at six o'clock. 

19 Walnut Street, 
October fifth. 

(Formal reply, declining.) 

Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Scott regret that, owing 
to sickness in the family, they are unable to accept 
Mr. and Mrs. Arthur J. Phelps's kind invitation for 
Thursday evening, October eighth. 

19 Walnut Street, 
October fifth. 

(Formal invitation to meet a guest.) 

Mr. and Mrs. Harry R. Peck invite Mr. Charles 
E. Piatt to meet their guest, Dr. Francis I. Hippie, 
on Thursday evening, July eleventh, at eight o'clock. 

233 Post Street, 
July seventh. 

(Formal reply, accepting.) 

Mr. Charles E. Piatt accepts with pleasure the 
very kind invitation of Mr. and Mrs. Harry R. Peck 
to meet their guest, Dr. Francis I. Hippie, on Thurs- 
day evening, July eleventh, at eight o'clock. 

683 Van Dyke Avenue, 
July eighth. 



LETTER-WRITING 157 

(Informal invitation.) 

My dear Miss Elliott: 

If you have no engagement on 
Wednesday evening, May tenth, may we hope that 
you will give the pleasure of dining with us quite 
informally at seven? 

Very sincerely yours, 

Margaret Lawrence. 
Friday, May fifth. 

(Informal reply, accepting.) 

My dear Miss Lawrence: 

It will be a great pleasure to dine 
with you Wednesday, May tenth. How thoughtful 
you were to remember that the absence of father 
and mother from home would leave me alone. 
Very sincerely yours, 

Josephine Elliott. 
Monday, May eighth. 

(Informal invitation, general.) 

Dear Stella: 

May we count on you for Tuesday evening 
at eight? Dick will play for us, and that is always 
such a treat. Do come. 

Affectionately yours, 

Pearl. 
Friday, November fifteenth. 



158 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS 

1. When two pages of correspondence paper suf- 
fice for a letter, write on the first and third pages. 
When it is necessary to use all the pages, they should 
be filled consecutively. 

2. The closing words of a letter should never be 
written in the margins or across the top of a page. 
No part of a letter should be written in vertical 
lines. Such eccentricities are always in bad taste. 
"Good breeding and refinement are rarely expressed 
in extremes of any kind." 

3. Only the best quality of unruled paper should 
be used in social correspondence. There is no paper 
in better taste or of more enduring fashion than the 
plain white or the delicate tints of ivory or cream. 
Only black ink of good quality should be used. 

4. Such contractions as rec'd, y'rs, aff' yours, 
resp'ly, & (for and), Dear Doc. (for Doctor), Dear 
Prof, (for Professor), and so on, are not admissible. 

5. Very seldom should a letter be called a "favor." 
"Come to hand" is a locution of questionable taste. 
Avoid the hackneyed phrase, "Hoping this will find 
you, as it leaves me, in good health." Do not begin 
with "As I am at leisure, I thought I would write 
you a few lines," etc. 

6. Though one should not be punctilious in avoid- 
ing the pronoun /, it should be used sparingly. Its 
very frequent use savors of egotism. The passive 
voice of the verb is helpful in this. 

7. For each new topic begin a new paragraph. 



LETTER-WRITING 159 

8. Do not underline words and sentences for em- 
phasis, nor indulge in apologies and long prefaces 
of explanation. 

9. When writing a letter of request to a mere 
acquaintance, or to a stranger, it is good form to en- 
close a postage stamp. We should not impose any 
pecuniary obligation upon a stranger. 

10. The letters st, th, or nd, after ordinal numer- 
als, are omitted in headings, addresses, or super- 
scriptions. 

11. Invitations to dinner or luncheon require im- 
mediate answers; but invitations to weddings, re- 
ceptions, and evening entertainments require no 
answer in acceptance^ unless an answer has been re- 
quested. Written regrets may be sent within three 
or four days after the receipt of the invitation. The 
answer is always addressed to the person in whose 
name the invitation is given. 

12. An invitation should not be answered on a 
visiting card or on a postal card, nor on business 
paper or on a half sheet of note paper. 

13. When an invitation is given in the name of 
both husband and wife, the answer should contain 
an allusion to each; but the envelope should be ad- 
dressed to the wife alone. 

14. The words "Present," "Addressed," or "En 
Ville," should not be placed upon the envelope. It 
is a custom no longer observed. 

15. An occasion for a postscript (P. S.) should be 
avoided. 



160 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

16. It is not good form to begin a sentence with- 
out a subject; as, "Have just returned from," etc., 
or, "Would be glad to meet," etc. 

17. "Avoid flourishes and peculiar and striking 
capitals in the signature. They are an evidence of 
vanity and vulgarity, not of individuality and char- 
acter, as is sometimes imagined." 

18. Remember that written words may sometimes 
become very unpleasant witnesses. It is ever well 
that thinking precede writing. 

19. A letter of introduction or of recommendation 
should not be sealed. On the lower left-hand corner 
of an envelope enclosing a letter of introduction 
should be written the word Introducing , with the 
name of the person introduced. 

EXERCISE I 

Come to class prepared to do the following re- 
quirements at the blackboard: 

1. Write proper headings for letters supposed to 
be written from the following places : A State normal 
school; a village in Sonoma County, California; the 
St. Francis Hotel in San Francisco; the University 
of Michigan ; the steamship Paris in mid-ocean ; 235 
Euclid Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio. 

2. Write the introductory and concluding parts 
of letters to three firms. 

3. Direct envelopes to the following: A clergy- 
man in Milwaukee, a lawyer living in the county- 
seat of your own county, the editor of a local paper, 



LETTER-WRITING 161 

the principal of the nearest high school, a physician 
living in a Kansas village, the mayor of a large city, 
your uncle who is staying at the Auditorium Hotel 
in Chicago, and a boy of ten with whom you are 
acquainted, and who is spending the winter in Hon- 
olulu. 

4. Write a formal invitation. Write two replies, 
in one accepting, in the other declining, the invi- 
tation. 

EXERCISE II 

1. Your friend Albert Fuller writes to ask you 
about a school which you formerly attended and 
which he is thinking of attending next year. An- 
swer his letter. 

2. Your friend Irene Jones writes to ask you 
about a school that you have attended, and which 
she thinks of attending next year. Answer her 
letter. 

3. You have a cousin who lives in Nova Scotia. 
You live in Texas. Write to him (or her) about the 
climate and the chief industries. Tell something 
respecting your school, your young people's clubs, 
and your amusements. 

4. A classmate has been ill, but is convalescent. 
Write him (or her) the kind of letter you should like 
to get if you were in his place. 

5. Write to your friend Charles Dickson, who 
lives in Lincoln, Nebraska, inviting him to spend 
the Christmas holidays with you. Tell him why 



162 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

you think he would enjoy such a visit. Your parents 
join in the invitation. 

6. Write to a Christian friend, and recount the 
work done by your young people's missionary society 
during the last three months. 

7. A man whom you know wishes to buy a horse. 
Write to him, offering to sell him your horse. De- 
scribe the horse. 

8. Write to the publishers of The World's Work, 
requesting them to send the magazine to your school 
for use in the reference library. Enclose a money 
order in payment. 

9. You wish to buy a motorcycle. Write to the 
nearest agency, asking for descriptions of the 
"makes" which they represent, with prices. 

10. You are a student in a Christian college. 
Write to your mother, telling her why you enjoy 
the daily chapel exercises. 

11. Send an order to Henry Holt and Company, 
for ten different books of recent issue. Arrange for 
payment. 

12. You are a teacher. Write to a young friend, 
telling him (or her) why you think he should make 
teaching his life's work. 



PART FOUR 



Principles of Effective Composition 

SENTENCES 

Definition. — A sentence is a complete thought 
verbally expressed. 

"The sentence is the mold into which all our think- 
ing is run." It is the unit of thought and speech. 
All speaking and writing must therefore be done in 
sentences. We see, then, that the sentence is a 
tool which every one has occasion to use; and, like 
other tools, it is used to little purpose, if not used 
well. Here, as elsewhere, skill demands its price 
— long and painstaking practice. 

The grammatical requisites of a good sentence 
have been indicated in the chapter on "Applied 
Grammar." But there are other considerations that 
enter into the making of sentences. 

Every sentence should be tested, in effect by the 
following questions : 

a. Have the words been so chosen and arranged 
as to insure clearness of expression. 

b. Does the sentence express the thought with due 
emphasis or force? 

c. Does it contain but one central thought? 

d. Could the sentence be made to affect the ear 
more pleasantly? 

(163) 



164 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

e. Is it concise? 

f. Does it contain all needful words? 

Kinds of Sentences. — As to quantity, sentences 
are long or short; as to structure, they are simple, 
compound or complex; loose, periodic, or balanced. 

In the writings of the best authors, long and 
short sentences are duly intermingled. A long suc- 
cession of sentences of nearly the same length is 
wearisome. The proportion in which long and short 
sentences should be combined can not, however, be 
determined by rule. The discretion and taste of 
the writer must determine this question. He must be 
on his guard, however, to keep his sentences from 
running to extremes on either side. 

Every subject of discourse contains thoughts that 
lend themselves naturally to short sentences ; others, 
to long sentences. When all, or nearly all the sen- 
tences are short the rhythm is impaired, and the 
style becomes flippant, jerky, abrupt, and the reader 
experiences a sense of unsatisfiedness. On the other 
hand, when long sentences largely preponderate, the 
style becomes lumbering and heavy, and interpre- 
tation more difficult. The effect produced by a due 
proportion of short sentences is to give to a passage 
lightness, vivacity, emphasis, and ease of apprehen- 
sion; a due proportion of long sentences gives to it 
dignity, completeness, rhythm, and cadence. The 
feelings, and the decisions of the will naturally flow 
into short sentences; weighty and complex reason- 
ings, into long sentences. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 165 

A succession of short sentences may be employed 
sometimes for a special kind of emphasis — "the suc- 
cessive, condensed assertions being like so many 
hammer strokes/' The following illustration is 
from Macaulay: 

"We have had laws. We have had blood. New 
treasons have been created. The press has been 
shackled. The habeas corpus act has been sus- 
pended. Public meetings have been prohibited. The 
event has proved that these expedients were mere 
palliatives. You are at the end of your palliatives. 
The evil remains. It is more formidable than ever. 
What is to be done?" 

It should be remembered that brevity is not op- 
posed to many words, but useless words — to verbi- 
age. A writer whose sentences are generally short, 
may be tautological and prolix; another whose sen- 
tences are, in the main, long, may be brief and force- 
ful. It is safer, however, for writers of little ex- 
perience to couch their thoughts in sentences com- 
paratively short. It requires a practiced pen to con- 
struct a long sentence that is at the same time clear 
and consistent throughout. A writer must grow into 
long sentences ; but he needs to guard against grow- 
ing into too many. 

The advantage of the long sentence lies in the 
fact that by it we are enabled to state in the same 
grammatical unity — in the same breath, as it were — 
a whole thought with all its necessary modifications. 
"One can also get by it," Professor Genung says, 



166 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

"better effects of sound and rhythm, as it has a capa- 
bility of flow that the short sentence lacks." He 
says further: "For vigor and emphasis, use short 
sentences. For detail and rhythm, use long sen- 
tences." In the words of Professor A. S. Hill: 
"In unbroken succession, long sentences fatigue the 
eye and the mind; short sentences distract them. 
The skillful writer alternates the two, using the 
former for the most part to explain, the latter to 
enforce his views." 

The following passage from Ruskin illustrates 
the value of the long sentence for expressing a com- 
plex thought as a unit: 

"The work of the great spirit of nature is as deep 
and unapproachable in the lowest as in the noblest 
objects; the divine mind is as visible in its full en- 
ergy of operation on every lowly bank and molder- 
ihg stone, as in the lifting of the pillars of heaven 
and settling the foundations of the earth ; and to the 
rightly-perceiving mind there is the same infinity, 
the same majesty, the same power, the same unity, 
and the same perfection, manifest in the casting 
of the clay as in the scattering of the cloud, in the 
moldering of the dust as in the kindling of the day- 
star." 

Loose, Periodic, and Balanced Sentences. — 
The loose, the periodic, and the balanced structure of 
sentences afford opportunity not only to secure va- 
riety of sentence form, but also to enhance the 
beauty and to promote the energy of style. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 167 

Definition. — A periodic sentence is a sentence so 
constructed as to keep both the sense and the gram- 
matical construction incomplete until the end is 
reached ; as — 

"Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, 
whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever things are 
just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things 
are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report; 
if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, 
think on these things." Phil. 4 : 8. 

Observe that this sentence would not express a 
finished thought at any point before its close. 

Definition. — A loose sentence is a sentence so 
constructed as to express a complete thought at one 
or more points before the end is reached ; as — 

"Language is a dead letter till the spirit within 
the poet himself breathes through it, gives it voice, 
and makes it audible to the very mind." 

Note the several points at which the foregoing 
sentence might be ended, and still express a complete 
thought. 

At what points could the following loose sentence 
be brought to a full stop, and yet embody a com- 
plete thought? 

"Milton's nature selected and drew to itself what- 
ever was great and good from the parliament and 
from the court, from the conventicle and from the 
cloister, from the gloomy and sepulchral circles of 
the Roundheads and from the Christmas revel of the 
hospitable Cavalier/' 



168 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

In a loose sentence the essential idea is given be- 
fore the subordinate elements are given. It is easy 
in most cases to change a periodic sentence to a loose, 
and a loose sentence to a periodic. For example: 
" Milton always selected for himself the boldest lit- 
erary services, that he might shake the foundations 
of debasing sentiments more effectually/ ' is a loose 
sentence. By giving it the following cast, it is made 
periodic: "That he might shake the foundations of 
debasing sentiments more effectually, Milton always 
selected for himself the boldest literary services.' ' 

The following sentence, "We came to our jour- 
ney's end, at last, with no small difficulty, after much 
fatigue, through deep roads and bad weather," is 
loose. By giving it the following mold, it becomes 
periodic : "At last, with no small difficulty, and after 
much fatigue, we came, through deep roads and bad 
weather, to our journey's end." 

Again: "His actions were frequently criticized, 
but his character was above criticism," is a loose 
sentence. By changing the structure as follows, it 
is made periodic: "Though his actions were fre- 
quently criticized, his character was above criti- 
cism." 

As a succession of related thoughts may be ex- 
pressed in a series of short sentences, or in a series 
of long sentences, or in sentences which are now 
long, now short; so, too, the same thoughts may be 
expressed in loose or in periodic sentences, or in a 
combination of both. The essential flexibility and 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 169 

plasticity of sentences make it easy to give to style 
the "spice" of variety. 

It should be remembered, too, that a sentence is 
not always wholly loose or wholly periodic. The 
same sentence, especially if long, may begin with the 
periodic structure and remain so to a certain point, 
and then be finished in the loose form. The follow- 
ing sentence is periodic as far as the word "beau- 
tiful," and loose from that point on: 

"Endowed with a rare purity of intellect, a classic 
beauty of expression, a yearning tenderness toward 
all of God's creatures, no poet appeals more tenderly 
than Shelley to our love for the beautiful, to our 
respect for our fellow men, to our heartfelt charity 
for human weakness." 

A sentence that combines both the periodic and 
the loose structure is called by some authors a com- 
promise sentence. 

Each of these two classes of sentences has its 
advantages. A loose sentence is not necessarily a 
bad sentence. It is a type of structure just as legit- 
imate and just as susceptible of artistic finish as the 
periodic. In perhaps every discourse there are many 
more loose than periodic sentences. Rarely does one 
find more than two successive periodic sentences, 
especially if the sentences are long. Periodic sen- 
tences need to be constantly relieved by loose ones. 

The loose structure has the advantage of being 
more natural, easy, and colloquial than the periodic. 
For this reason it is especially adapted to familiar 



170 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

kinds of discourse, such as conversation, letters, and 
easy narrative. It is less formal and artificial than 
either the periodic or the balanced structure. 

If used to excess, however, loose sentences give 
style a careless, jagged appearance. Unless loose 
sentences are constructed with great care, they may 
become a mere string of phrases and clauses, with 
little or no firmness or coherence. There is danger, 
too, when many loose sentences are used in succes- 
sion, that all will begin in the same way, or end in 
the same way. A succession of loose sentences 
should exhibit variety of structure. 

The advantages of the periodic structure are : 

a. It promotes neatness and finish, especially when 
the sentences are short. 

b. It gives to long sentences firmness, dignity, 
and impressiveness. 

c. It promotes energy of expression, since all 
parts of the sentence are made to look to one point 
— the close. 

d. By holding the significant idea in reserve until 
the qualifying details are disposed of, it excites the 
interest, and sustains the attention of the reader or 
hearer. 

e. It makes easy the skillful management of a 
large number of subordinate elements, since they all 
must be arranged with reference to one point — the 
paramount idea. 

The unpracticed writer needs to guard himself 
against the temptation to run too many of his sen- 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 171 

tences into the periodic mold. An undue number of 
periods gives to style a stiff, formal, artificial effect. 
As all the preliminary details of a period must be 
held in mind until the key-word is reached, it is easy 
to make the number of such details too large to be 
carried, and as a result the reader's attention is not 
stimulated, but distracted. When the details are 
many, the compromise form is always at hand to 
help out the writer. This period from the Bible is 
typical as to length: "He that spared not His own 
Son, but delivered Him up for us all, how shall He 
not with Him also freely give us all things ?" 

"Excessive periodicity is stilted; excessive loose- 
ness is slovenly. The best style is that which adapts 
the form of the sentences easily and spontaneously 
to the character of the thought expressed/' 

EXERCISE I 

Change the following sentences from the loose 
to the periodic structure: 

1. We have no opportunity to make money or to 
spend money. 

2. Why should he disgrace himself and his 
friends by getting money in this way, when he could 
have whatever he needed by asking for it? 

3. You must act promptly, taking the risk of mis- 
take, or else you must perhaps let slip the only op- 
portunity that you will have to gain your object. 

4. There are to be accommodations for a larger 



172 ESSENTIALS OP ENGLISH 

attendance at the next football game than ever be- 
fore, I hear. 

5. The number of subjects to be taught multi- 
plies, and so must the means of instruction be in- 
creased. 

6. The enemies of the public school are in favor 
of this measure; the friends of the school are op- 
posed to it. 

7. He had the years of youth, yet he had the 
wisdom of age. 

8. The fire swept on, and with its advance gained 
force and range, and left in ashes the town, and in 
terrible desolation the surrounding country for miles 
in every direction. 

9. He came now to the crisis of his life, strug- 
gled, fell back, got courage again, made another vig- 
orous effort, stood firm and strong against the heavy 
odds, and finally conquered. 

10. He walks rapidly so as to get the benefit of 
the exercise. 

11. The general was now compelled to take the 
defensive, having been surprised by the arrival of 
fresh troops on the opposing side. 

12. I should urge you to come out of your sick- 
room, get the strength of this invigorating air, enjoy 
this constant sunshine, and know again what it is 
to live, if you were here. 

13. He came upon me suddenly, so that I had no 
time to avoid him or to prepare for him. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 173 

14. These young men had been trained at home to 
promptness, diligence, and honesty; and so, when 
thrown upon their own resources in this new coun- 
try, they soon showed in their rise to wealth and in- 
fluence the value of early discipline. 

15. He spoke eloquently, and so won over the jury 
to his side. 

16. Rigorous discipline is essential, not only to 
success, but to safety in the army and the navy. 

17. She has a sweet, sympathetic voice, and there- 
fore gives pleasure to all her hearers who are not 
critical. 

18. It is impossible for a new man, if at all in- 
dolent, to have any success here, because of the 
scarcity of openings, the close competition, and the 
energy of the native inhabitants. 

19. The mind is crippled and contracted by per- 
petual attention to the same ideas; just as any act 
or posture, long continued, will disfigure the limbs. 

20. That man, I think, has had a liberal educa- 
tion who has been so trained in youth that his body 
is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease 
and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it 
is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic 
engine, with all its parts of equal strength, and in 
smooth working order; ready, like a steam engine, 
to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gos- 
samers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; 
whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great 
and fundamental truths of nature and of the laws 



174 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

of her operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, is 
full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained 
to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a 
tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, 
whether of nature or of art, to hate all vileness, and 
to respect others as himself. — Huxley. 

Definition. — A balanced sentence is one in which 
corresponding parts are made similar in form in 
order to put in bold relief a similarity or a contrast 
in thought; as — 

"He defended him when living, amidst the clamors 
of his enemies ; and praised him when dead, amidst 
the silence of his friends/' 

The parallel parts may be phrases or clauses. The 
chief value of the balanced structure lies in the fact 
that it is neat, compact, and symmetrical. It is 
pleasing to the ear and helpful to the memory. This 
fact explains why so many verses in the Psalms and 
in the book of Proverbs are so easily remembered. 
The balanced structure is a device by which opposite 
qualities of the same person or thing are set over 
against each other, and thus brought into conspicu- 
ous relief. 

Notwithstanding its many advantages, the bal- 
anced sentence must not be used with undue fre- 
quency. The very rhythm of it strongly tempts 
one to use it where no actual parallelism of likeness 
or contrast exists. "The habit of clothing similar 
thoughts in clauses, or phrases ... of about 
equal length and similar structure may easily be- 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 175 

come a mannerism. A series of balances grows 
speedily wearisome, and becomes offensively regu- 
lar." 

Dr. Johnson and Lord Macaulay were both par- 
tial to the balanced sentence, and often used it to 
excess. That is one of the reasons why Johnson's 
style is often stiff and artificial. But used with mod- 
eration, the balanced structure is one of the potent 
devices for securing vivacity and force in expres- 
sion. The Bible is replete with the best examples 
of the balance. 

EXERCISE II 

Point out the balanced parts of each of the fol- 
lowing sentences. Commit to memory the sentences 
that seem most interesting to you: 

1. My son, hear the instruction of thy father, and 
forsake not the law of thy mother; for they shall 
be an ornament of grace unto thy head, and chains 
about thy neck. 

2. The lip of truth shall be established forever; 
but a lying tongue is but for a moment. 

3. There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath 
nothing ; there is that maketh himself poor, yet hath 
great riches. 

4. Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all 
her paths are peace. 

5. They that know God will be humble; they 
that know themselves can not be proud. 



176 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

6. The dictionary is a cemetery for dead words 
as well as a home for living ones. 

7. Holiness is not the way to Christ, but Christ 
is the way to holiness. 

8. If a good face is a letter of recommendation, 
a good heart is a letter of credit. 

9. He who has health, has hope; he who has 
hope, has everything. 

10. Hurry is the mark of a weak mind ; despatch, 
of a strong one. 

11. He who receives a benefit should never for- 
get it ; he who bestows one should never remember it. 

12. To find fault is easy; to do better may be 
difficult. 

13. Bad men excuse their faults; good men for- 
sake theirs. 

14. Nothing is so strong as gentleness; nothing 
so gentle as real strength. 

15. Our greatest glory consists not in never fall- 
ing, but in rising every time we fall. 

16. In taking revenge, a man is but even with his 
enemy; but in passing it over, he is superior. 

17. Talent is power, tact is skill ; talent is weight, 
tact is momentum. Talent knows what to do, tact 
knows how to do it ; talent makes a man respectable, 
tact will make him respected; talent is wealth, tact 
is ready money. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 177 

EXERCISE III 

Point out the periodic and the balanced sentences 
found in the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth chapters 
of Romans, and in the thirteenth and fifteenth chap- 
ters of 1 Corinthians. Find one periodic sentence 
in the fifth chapter of Matthew, and one in the first 
chapter of James. The last sentence in the fifty- 
eighth chapter of Isaiah is a compromise. Why ? 

FIGURES OF SPEECH 

When Goethe wrote, "Kindness is the golden 
chain by which society is bound together," he used 
some of his words in a sense different from that 
of their plain and ordinary use. If he had ex- 
pressed the same thought thus: "Without kindness 
people could not continue to live together," he would 
have used ali his words in their primary or ordinary 
sense. In other words, he would have expressed the 
thought in literal language. But, expressing it as 
he did, he used figurative language. You see at 
once that he did not mean to say that kindness is 
an actual chain of gold. But his imagination de- 
tected a resemblance, or an analogy, between the 
effect of kindness in holding people together in what 
we call society and that of an actual gold chain 
in holding together certain material objects to 
which it is fastened. 

Should you say, "We sow an act arid reap a habit," 
you would express your thought by means of a 



178 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

figure of speech. Should you say, "An act often 
repeated becomes a habit," you would express the 
same thought in plain or literal language. "Thy 
smile always cheers me," expresses a thought in 
plain language; but "Thy smile is as the dawn of a 
vernal day," expresses the same thought much more 
vividly and attractively by means of figurative 
terms. 

Definition. — A figure of speech is a form of lan- 
guage expressing a relation between two things or 
ideas which is literally untrue. 

Though a figure of speech is a device of language, 
it is not an artificial or unnatural device. All per- 
sons, lettered and unlettered, constantly use figura- 
tive language without thinking about it. Imagery 
runs in the blood of all human speech. When we 
use figures of speech we are simply obeying the in- 
herent tendency of the mind to compare one thing 
with another that resembles it in one respect, 
whether in fact or only in our imagination. "The 
moment our discourse rises above the ground line of 
familiar facts, and is inflamed with passion or ex- 
alted by thought, it clothes itself in images," says 
Emerson. 

The Simile — Definition. — A simile is a figure 
of speech in which an analogy or a likeness is pointed 
out between things in other respects unlike ; as — 

"It [mercy] droppeth as the gentle rain from 
heaven upon the place beneath." 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 179 

The comparison is usually expressed by such 
words as so, as, like, just so, and as — so. It is a 
device that was much used by the Teacher of teach- 
ers, as when He said, "0 Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou 
that killest the prophets and stonest them that are 
sent unto thee, how often would I have gathered 
thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her 
chickens under her wings, and ye would not." Read 
the thirteenth chapter of Matthew, and notice the 
many similes employed to make clear the various 
aspects of the kingdom of heaven. 

Similes and metaphors shine like stars through- 
out the Old Testament. How apt and beautiful is 
the one found in Isaiah 55:10, 11: "For as the 
rain cometh down, and the snow from heaven, and 
returneth not thither, but watereth the earth, and 
maketh it bring forth and bud, that it may give 
seed to the sower, and bread to the eater; so shall 
My word be that goeth forth out of My mouth; it 
shall not return unto Me void, but it shall accom- 
plish that which I please, and it shall prosper in the 
thing whereto I sent it." How beautifully apt is 
this : "My doctrine shall drop as the rain, My speech 
shall distil as the dew, as the small rain upon the 
tender herb, and as the showers upon the grass." 
Deut. 32: 2. See also verses 11 and 12. 

Note the poetic beauty and delicacy of the fol- 
lowing cluster of similes found in the fourteenth 
chapter of Hosea: 



180 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

"I will be as the dew unto Israel; he shall grow 
as the lily, and cast forth his roots as Lebanon. 
His branches shall spread, and his beauty shall be 
as the olive tree, and his smell as Lebanon. They 
that dwell under his shadow shall return ; they shall 
revive as the corn and grow as the vine; the scent 
thereof shall be as the wine of Lebanon." 

Observe how the similes given below serve to em- 
bellish as well as to clarify thought. 

Jesus uttered w r ords that stir the soul, as summer 
dews call up the faint and sickly grass. — Theo. 
Parker. 

Men whose lives glided on, like rivers that water 
the woodlands, darkened by shadows of earth, but 
reflecting an image of heaven. — Longfellow. 

"The happy associations of my early life, that 
before lay scattered, take beautiful shapes, like iron 
dust at the approach of the magnet." 

Wordsworth said of Milton — 

Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart; 
Thou hadst a voice w r hose sound was like the sea, 
Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free. 

One can see the white dusted miller in the fol- 
lowing simile from Tennyson : 

Him, like the working-bee in blossom dust, 
Blanched with his mill, they found. 

Clear writers, like clear fountains, do not seem 
so deep as they are. — Landor. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 181 

If brain workers would only do like cows, — 
gather up their material as they walk around in 
the fields and woods and assimilate it while resting, 
— they would have more brains. — J. T. Moore. 

The Metaphor. — The nearest neighbor of the 
simile is the metaphor. In essence the two figures 
are alike. Both are based on comparison. In a 
simile the comparison is stated formally ; in a meta- 
phor it is implied. We use a metaphor when in- 
stead of saying that one thing is like another in 
some particular, we say that it is the other, or 
speak of it as if it were the other. 

Definition. — A metaphor is a figure of speech in 
which one thing is spoken of by the name of an- 
other, for the purpose of making the expression 
more forceful and attractive. 

A metaphor is really a compressed simile. The 
simile is especially conducive to clearness ; the meta- 
phor, to energy; both, to elegance. 

Of all the figures of speech, the metaphor is the 
most serviceable. All literature is packed with 
metaphors. It is difficult to write a dozen lines 
without using one. In truth, nine tenths of our 
English words that are of classical origin are meta- 
phors in disguise — faded metaphors. What was 
once their literal meaning has been lost, and their 
secondary or metaphorical signification alone re- 
mains. 

If you wrote, "Spare moments are like gold-dust, 
small, but precious," you would use a simile. If 



182 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

you wrote, "Spare moments are the gold-dust of 
time/' you would use a metaphor. 

Metaphors are particularly useful in giving form 
and tangibility to abstract ideas; as when David 
says, "Thy Word is a lamp unto my feet, and a light 
unto my path/' "The Lord is my Shepherd, I shall 
not want," and "The Lord God is a sun and shield." 
"Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt 
of the night," wrote Beecher. "Prayer" is some- 
thing abstract, but a "key" and a "bolt" are con- 
crete enough. How this metaphor helps us to grasp 
one of the many good offices of prayer! The meta- 
phor helps not only the understanding, but also 
the memory. A thought expressed in an appropriate 
metaphor is easily remembered. There is something 
about an apt metaphor that makes it "stick." 
Metaphors are also conducive to brevity. Were it 
not for the metaphorical construction, many of the 
most common thoughts would have to be expressed 
in a long, roundabout way. 

EXERCISE IV 

Point out the metaphors in the sentences below. 
Change some of them to literal language, and note 
the effect: 

1. We are the prisoners of ideas. 

2. He is the very pineapple of politeness. 

3. The world's a bubble, and the life of man 
less than a span. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 183 

4. Some books are to be tasted, others to be 
swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. 
— Bacon. 

5. Habit is . . . the enormous fly-wheel of 
society. 

6. His mind was wax to receive impressions, and 
marble to retain them. 

7. For what is your life? It is even a vapor, 
that appeareth for a little time, and then vanisheth 
away. James 4 : 14. 

8. The effective public speaker receives from his 
audience in vapor what he pours back on them in 
a flood.— Gladstone. 

9. I am the living bread which came down from 
heaven.— Jesus. 

10. On the soft bed of luxury most kingdoms have 
expired. — Young. 

11. Your voiceless lips, flowers, are living 
preachers — each cup a pulpit, and each leaf a book. 
— Horace Smith. 

Personification — Definition. — A Personifica- 
tion is a kind of metaphor that consists in attrib- 
uting the qualities of persons or animals to an 
inanimate thing, or in attributing human qualities 
to a mere animal ; as — 

"Earth with her thousand voices praises God." 
The personifying of lifeless objects is an original 
tendency of the human mind, which feels a com- 
munity of life with the objects about it. "The mind 
naturally animates inanimate things." The child 



184 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

elevates into a companion of its life the most com- 
mon and trivial objects. The value of this figure 
lies in the fact that it gives concreteness and ani- 
mation to style. For this reason it serves both to 
please and to impress. 

In the commonest forms of this figure the per- 
sonification is expressed in adjectives, as when we 
speak of angry clouds, a froivning precipice, a raging 
storm, a pitiless stone, the thirsty ground, the proud 
palace. The personification is far more impressive 
and bold when it is expressed in verbs, as the fol- 
lowing from Isaiah 55 : 12 : "For ye shall go out 
with joy, and be led forth with peace; the mountains 
and the hills shall break forth before you into sing- 
ing, and all the trees of the fields shall clap their 
hands." 

EXERCISE V 

Study the following passages, and tell which 
words in each express the personification: 

1. Yet Love will dream, and Faith will trust, 
That somehow, somewhere, meet we must. 

2. To him who in the love of nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language ; for his gayer hours 

She has a voice of gladness, and a smile, 
And eloquence of beauty, and she glides 
Into his darker musings with a mild 
And healing sympathy that steals away 
Their sharpness ere he is aware. 

— Bryant. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 185 

3. The Night is mother of the Day, 
The Winter of the Spring. • 

— Whittier. 

4. For weeks the clouds had raked the hills 

And vexed the vales with raining, 
And all the woods were sad with mist, 
And all the brooks complaining. 

— Whittier. 

5. Soon as the evening shades prevail, 
The moon takes up the wondrous tale; 
And nightly to the listening earth, 
Repeats the story of her birth ; 

While all the stars that 'round her burn, 
And all the planets in their turn, 
Confirm the tidings as they roll, 
And spread the truth from pole to pole. 

What though in solemn silence all 
Move 'round this dark terrestrial ball ? 
What though no real voice nor sound 
Amid their radiant orbs be found? 
In reason's ear they all rejoice, 
And utter forth a glorious voice, 
Forever singing as they shine, 
"The hand that made us is divine." 

— Addison. 

6. Good-by to Flattery's fawning face; 
To Grandeur with his wise grimace ; 
To upstart Wealth's averted eye; 
To supple office, low and high. 

— Anon. 



186 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Figure of Apostrophe — Definition. — The apos- 
trophe is a figure of speech that consists in address- 
ing absent persons as if they were present, the 
dead as if they were living, or impersonal things as 
if they were personal ; as — 

Awake, awake; put on thy strength, Zion; put 
on thy beautiful garments, Jerusalem, the holy 
city; for henceforth there shall no more come into 
thee the uncircumcised and the unclean. Shake thy- 
self from the dust ; arise, and sit down, O Jerusalem ; 
loose thyself from the bands of thy neck, captive 
daughter of Zion. Isa. 52 : 1, 2. 

The poet Halleck addressed the following lines 
to his dead friend, the poet J. R. Drake : 
Green be the turf above thee, 

Friend of my better days! 
None knew thee but to love thee, 
None named thee but to praise. 

Note the concreteness and life with which the 
following thoughts are invested by the figure of 
apostrophe : 

1. O Liberty, can men resign thee, 
Once having felt thy generous flame? 

— DeLisle. 

2. Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew, 
neither let there be rain, upon you, no fields of of- 
ferings. — Bible. 

3. Come, old Assyria, with the dove of Nineveh 
upon thy emerald crown, what laid thee low? 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 187 

4. Over the seas and far away, 

swallow, do you remember at all, 
The nest in the lichened garden wall, 
Where you were born one day in spring, 
Where the sun looked in through an ivy screen, 
And the leaves of the lilac were large and 
green ? 

— Katherine Tynan. 

5. O death, where is thy sting? grave, where is 
thy victory? 

6. Advance, then, ye future generations! We 
would hail you, as you rise in your long succession, 
to fill the places which we now fill, and to taste 
the blessings of existence where we are passing, and 
soon shall have passed, our own human duration. 
We bid you welcome to this pleasant land of the 
fathers. — Webster. 

When the object addressed is impersonal, the 
figure is both an apostrophe and a personification. 

It should be remembered that only such apostro- 
phes are legitimate as are the spontaneous expres- 
sion of intense emotion. Any other would savor 
so much of design as to disgust the reader. 

Allegory — Definition. — An allegory is a figura- 
tive description or narrative in which the primary or 
actual subject is presented in the guise of a second- 
ary or representative subject, the two being so re- 
lated that the representative subject readily sug- 
gests the actual. 



188 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

An allegory is usually defined as an extended 
metaphor, both being thought of as implied com- 
parisons, differing only in length. It is true that an 
allegory is almost always longer than a metaphor; 
but this difference is only an accidental one. The 
essential difference lies in the fact that, in allegory, 
the actual subject of thought is far less obvious than 
it is in a metaphor. In allegory the real subject 
masquerades under the garb of the apparent, or 
instrumental, subject. In most metaphors the real 
subject is formally named; in allegory it is never 
so named. 

The Bible contains a number of excellent short 
allegories. The following specimen is a part of 
the eightieth Psalm: 

"Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt; thou 
hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou 
preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to 
take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were 
covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs 
thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out 
her boughs into the sea, and her branches unto the 
river. Why hast thou then broken down her hedges, 
so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her ? 
The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild 
beast of the field doth devour it. Return, we be- 
seech thee, God of hosts ; look down from heaven, 
and behold, and visit this vine." 

The following are famous examples of allegory: 
Longfellow's "Building of the Ship," Bryant's "Wait- 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 189 

ing by the Gate," Swift's "The Tale of a Tub," 
Hawthorne's "Celestial Railroad," Poe's "Raven," 
Dante's "Divina Commedia," Spenser's "Fairie 
Queen," and, above all, Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Prog- 
ress." 

EXERCISE VI 

Write in plain language the meaning of the al- 
legory above quoted from the eightieth Psalm. 

By consulting a good dictionary, prepare to ex- 
plain orally in the recitation the difference between 
an allegory proper and a parable; between a parable 
and a fable. 

Faulty Metaphors. — A metaphor is said to be 
mixed, or incongruous, when made up of parts not 
consistent with each other ; as, "He is swamped in the 
meshes of his argument." Here the word swamped 
brings before the mind the pictures of a bog, but 
meshes that of a net-work. The parts of the meta- 
phor are not of the same piece; the figure is not 
homogeneous. It should be either, "He is swamped 
in the mire of his argument," or "He is entangled 
in the meshes of his argument." Another mistake 
is to blend metaphorical with plain language. What 
is begun in metaphor is pieced out with plain lan- 
guage, and vice versa; as, "The strong pillar of the 
church had fled" Here pillar is figurative, and fled 
is literal. The statement should be either literal or 
metaphorical throughout; thus, "The most influen- 
tial man of the church had fled," or "The strong 
pillar of the church had fallen" 



190 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

EXERCISE VII 

The following sentences contain faulty metaphors. 
Reconstruct the sentences making whatever changes 
are necessary to insure correctness: 

1. Chaucer was the father of English poetry, and 
a favorite of the king. 2. A torrent of superstition 
consumed the land. 3. No human happiness is so 
serene as not to contain some alloy. 4. Hope, the 
balm of life, darts a ray of light through the thick- 
est gloom. 5. Solve the mazes of this dark tragedy. 
6. Pilot us through the wilderness of life. 7. A 
varnish of morality makes his actions palatable. 
8. These young men do not realize that they are 
sowing the seeds of a drunkard's grave. 9. Fancy 
sports on airy wing, like a meteor on the bosom of 
a summer cloud. 10. Throw open the floodgates of 
democracy, and you pave the way for a general con- 
flagration. 11. He is fairly launched on the road 
to preferment. 12. The shot of the enemy mowed 
down our ranks with frightful rapidity. 13. In 
the current of these mysterious and awful events 
we can not fail to see the footprints of an all- 
powerful hand. 14. Italy is a narrow tongue of 
land, the backbone of which is formed by the Ap- 
ennines. 15. These are the first fruits of my long- 
study, at last unearthed and brought to light. 16. 
Wild fancies gamboled unbridled through his brain, 
and swept away all his firm resolves. 17. He kindles 
the slumbering fires of passion. 18. The voice of 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 191 

England, which sounded so clearly at the last gen- 
eral election, would be lost sight of. 

Note. — The minor figures of speech — metonymy, synecdoche, 
antithesis, hyperbole, climax, epigram, and irony — are valuable 
chiefly as means for promoting energy of style. For this reason 
they will be treated in our study of Force as a quality of style. 

ELEMENTS OF STYLE 

Style in composition refers primarily, not to 
thought, but to the mode or manner of expressing 
thought in words. Thought is the matter of com- 
position. It answers the question What? Style 
answers the question How? Of course, in practice, 
the style can not be wholly independent of the 
thought; for the character of the thought should 
largely determine the character of the style. The 
ability to effect a happy adjustment of the style 
to the thought is what chiefly distinguishes the good 
from the poor writer. A perfect "fit" of style to 
thought is indispensable to effective composition. 
It is this adjustment which makes a composition 
readable. 

A good style expresses thought clearly, impress- 
ively, and attractively. Hence a good style must 
possess clearness, force, and attractiveness. The 
qualities of style are not entirely distinct each from 
the others; for clearness contributes to force, and 
clearness and force promote attractiveness. 

13 



192 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

CLEARNESS 

Since it is the office of a sentence to convey a 
thought, the first requisite of a good sentence is 
clearness. Lucidity takes precedence of all other 
qualities of style. Force and beauty count for 
nothing if the sentence be not first clear, for clear- 
ness is the foundation upon which all other quali- 
ties of style are built. The absence of clearness is 
known by the big word ambiguity. An ambiguous 
sentence is one that is open to two or more inter- 
pretations. A vague sentence is one that is so lack- 
ing in precision as to convey no thought definitely. 
Ambiguity, or vagueness of style, is a fatal blemish, 
— a blemish that the reader will not brook. 

Clear Thinking. — The first requisite to clear- 
ness of style is clear, definite thinking. A writer 
can not make his thoughts clearer to others than 
it is to himself. Haziness of thought must result 
in haziness of expression. 

Correct Arrangement. — Oftentimes a sentence 
lacks clearness because its parts are improperly ar- 
ranged. Parts which belong together should not be 
needlessly separated. Modifiers, especially phrases 
and clauses, may be placed so far away from the 
words they modify that the meaning of the sen- 
tence is changed or made obscure. One of the 
most important aids to clearness is, therefore, skill- 
ful arrangement of the elements of a sentence. A 
sentence so constructed is coherent, and a coherent 
sentence is always clear. If one should write, "He 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 193 

answered all the questions that were asked him 
quickly," it would be difficult for the reader to de- 
termine whether quickly is intended to modify an- 
swered or asked. By inserting quickly next after 
answered all ambiguity is removed. 

EXERCISE VIII 

Render the folloiving sentences CLEAR, by improv- 
ing the arrangement of their "parts: 

1. I learned what an inefficient teacher I was 
later in life. 

2. He said that his traveling bag had been stolen 
while sleeping in the car. 

3. An exhibition of drawing by youthful ama- 
teurs well worthy of inspection. 

4. While playing ball one Sunday, a pious old 
man spoke to him. 

5. Various estimates have been made as to the 
time of the birth of Columbus from the few facts 
which we have about his early life. 

6. He spoke to the young man who had been in- 
toxicated most earnestly. 

7. "Paradise Lost" is a poem about Satan di- 
vided into twelve parts. 

8. Sometimes disturbances arise, but they are 
usually checked before much harm is done by the 
policemen. 

9. The preacher spoke about the evils of gam- 
bling without manuscript or note. 



194 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

10. Take one of the powders on retiring in a little 
hot water. 

11. My uncle lives in the country and of course 
keeps chickens like the majority of the farmers. 

12. That dog almost seems human. 

13. Towser lost the use of one of his legs, so 
we had to shoot him out of humanity. 

EXERCISE IX 

What word in each of the folloiving sentences is 
misplaced? Where should it be placed? Why? 

1. Some people only succeed in getting themselves 
into trouble. 2. The force of habit is even carried 
into the sacred region of religion. 3. It is probably 
thought that he will succeed. 4. He has a very small 
income, as he nearly lost all his property. 5. He 
neither answered my letter nor my card. 6. You 
can neither borrow the organ nor the piano. 7. Try 
only to see the bright side. 8. James has only been 
tardy twice. 9. Do you take the medicine I send you 
regularly? 10. The resolution was only adopted by 
a majority of two. 11. Juvenile courts are only of 
use in large cities. 12. The grains mostly cultivated 
here are oats and rye. 

Skill in Using Participles. — In regard to the 
correct use of participles, Mr. Alfred M. Hitchcock 
says: "Skillfully used, it [a participle] is exceed- 
ingly helpful in sentence-building; clumsily used, it 
may prove but an annoyance. The one thing to 
remember is that it must modify something. Oc- 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 195 

casionally an untrained writer will make a partici- 
ple modify a word that he has in his mind but which 
is not expressed at all in the sentence. Occasionally 
he will use a participial phrase in such a way that 
the reader must guess which of two words it modi- 
fies. In either case confusion arises. " 

EXERCISE X 

Point out in the following sentences the parti- 
cipial phrases improperly used. Change the con- 
struction of the sentences in such a ivay that the 
reader can have no doubt what ivord each phrase 
modifies: 

1. Riding quickly to the other end of the line the 
command of the officer came sharp and clear. 2. 
Standing on the seashore two vessels are seen mov- 
ing in opposite directions. 3. While eating our 
luncheon the train was speeding on. 4. After hur- 
riedly eating my supper, a friend came in. 5. 
Struggling for a career that was more than life to 
him, his hope and faith kept strong to the end. 
6. The gun was returned to its owner, having decided 
not to go hunting. 7. Getting up early in the morn- 
ing, the first thing observed is the freshness of the 
air. 8. Alarmed at the news> a messenger was des- 
patched to the governor. 9. Mary at once answered 
the note received from her friend, urging her to 
come and see her. 10. The crowd contained the 
usual number of babies and bab# carriages, crying 
or sleeping. 



196 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Care in the Use of Pronouns. — Carelessness in 
the using of pronouns is a fruitful source of am- 
biguity. Every pronoun should be so placed as to 
enable the reader to see at a glance what ante- 
cedent the pronoun is meant to represent. Writers 
of considerable experience sometimes commit errors 
in dealing with pronouns. Here, if anywhere, vigi- 
lance is the price of uniform correctness. 

The chief devices for making the reference of 
pronouns clear are: (1) the employment of the de- 
monstratives this, that, these, those, the former, the 
latter; (2) the repetition of the antecedent; (3) 
changing to direct discourse. 

In the following sentence as it stands, the refer- 
ence of the pronouns is wholly uncertain. By chang- 
ing the sentence to direct discourse all is made clear. 

"He told his friend that if he did not feel better 
in half an hour, he thought he would better re- 
turn/' It is impossible to determine whether the 
speaker or the one spoken to "would better return/' 
Change to "He said to his friend, 'If I (or you) 
do not feel better in half an hour, I think I (or you) 
would better return/ " 

"He promised his father that he would pay his 
debts." Whose debts, his own or his father's, did 
he promise to pay? If he promised to pay his 
father's debts, the sentence should stand thus: "He 
promised his father that he would pay his father's 
debts." If he pr&mised to pay his own, the. sen- 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 197 

tence must be changed to direct discourse : "He made 
this promise to his father, 'I will pay my debts/ " 

Note the hopeless ambiguity that arises from the 
reckless use of pronouns, in the following : 

"On his way, he visited a son of an old friend, 
who had asked him to call upon him on his journey 
northward. He was overjoyed to see him, and he 
sent for one of his most intelligent workmen and 
told him to consider himself at his service, as he 
himself could not take him as he wished about the 
city." 

By skillful repetition the ambiguity is cleared up ; 
thus: 

"On his way he visited an old friend's son, who 
had asked him to call, on his journey northward. 
The host was overjoyed to see him, and, sending for 
one of his most intelligent workmen, told him to 
consider himself at the stranger's service, as he 
himself could not take his guest as he could have 
wished about the city." 

A clause introduced by a relative pronoun should 
be given such a position in the sentence as will make 
its reference evident at once. 

In the sentence, "I have letters from college stu- 
dents and others that are curiosities in their way," 
the relative pronoun that has three possible antece- 
dents— letters, students, and others. All is made 
clear by giving the sentence the following cast: 
"From college students and others, I have received 
letters that are curiosities in their way." 



J 98 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

The statement, "The figs were in small wooden 
boxes which we ate," should be, "The figs which we 
ate were in small wooden boxes." The sentence, 
"He must endure the foibles of others, who would 
have their kindness," should be, "He who would 
have the kindness of others must endure their foi- 
bles." The sentence, "The day has come of great 
rejoicing to many hearts, which we have looked for 
so long," should be, "The long-looked-for day of 
rejoicing to many hearts has come at last." Ob- 
serve how a repetition saves the following sentence 
from ambiguity: "The lad can not leave his father; 
for if he should leave his father, his father would 
die." Gen. 44:22. 

The writer of "The intellectual qualities of the 
youth were superior to those of his raiment," meant 
to say, "The qualities of the youth's intellect were 
superior to those of his raiment." The sentence, 
"Mr. Jones has just received a letter from Mr. 
Smith, saying that he is expected to deliver the 
next annual address," should be, "Mr. Jones has just 
received a letter from Mr. Smith, saying that the 
former (or Mr. Jones) is expected to deliver the 
next annual address." 

"My punishment did him good," might mean 
"The punishment I received did him good," or "The 
punishment I gave him did him good." 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 199 

EXERCISE XI 

In the following sentences some of the personal 
and some of the relative pronouns are used ambigu- 
ously. Reconstruct the sentences, making whatever 
changes are necessary for clearness: 

1. Tom lost his dog when he was but three years 
old. 2. The street on which I live is near the center 
of the city, which is very convenient for shopping. 
3. The train did not leave the station that day, for 
they considered the roadbed unsafe. 4. Before the 
days of steam cars they used to travel by stage 
coach. 5. A pig may have a little sense, but when it 
is being driven into a pen, it seems very small. 6.~ 
Instead of engines, horses are used in some cities 
to haul freight cars through the streets because they 
make too much noise. 7. There is a good ball ground 
here where they have games once a week. 8. Her- ■ 
bert's father died when he was quite young. 9. 
When he was brought before the judge, he smiled. 
10. No doubt Charles is clever, but it will not make 
up for his carelessness. 11. The doctor told his 
brother that he could not go out on account of the 
weather. 12. Fine hairs often cover the bodies of 
insects which are very thick in proportion to the 
size of the creature. 

Too Few Words. — Sentences may be misleading 
because necessary words are lacking. Professor 
Carpenter says that "young writers, especially those 
who try to be what is loosely called 'practical/ are 
often as likely to use too few words as too many." 



200 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

A clever lawyer once said: "Brevity is sometimes 
overrated. The number of a man's words should be 
like the length of a blanket — enough to cover the 
bed and to tuck in besides. " One may forget "that 
a piece of writing may be so condensed as to be 
dense." 

The omission of only a word or two often results 
in ambiguity. If I should say that I met the "secre- 
tary and treasurer" this morning, you would be in 
doubt as to whether I meant one person or two. The 
question, "Have you more interest in him than 
others?" might mean, "Have you more interest in 
him than others have?" or, "Have you more interest 
in him than you have in others?" Mr. Warner once 
said, "It makes one as hungry as one of Scott's 
novels." Strange that any of Scott's novels should 
ever get hungry. He meant, "It makes one as hun- 
gry as does one of Scott's novels." The main part 
of an infinitive should not be omitted at the end of a 
sentence; as, "He ate when he wished to," should 
be, "He ate when he wished to eat" The prepo- 
sition at must not be omitted before home in such 
constructions as, "He boards and sleeps at home." 
The preposition should not be omitted when used 
with days of the month ; as, "The war began on the 
nineteenth of April." When two or more connected 
nouns denote things that are to be distinguished 
from each other or emphasized, the article must be 
inserted before each noun; as, "The man was 
obliged to choose between a black and a blue suit." 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 201 

"The days of Charles II were the golden days of 
the coward, the bigot, and the slave." The omission 
of that in sentences like the following, defeats 
clearness : "He chose between the lot of the rich and 
that of the poor." 

EXERCISE XII 

Supply necessary ivords omitted in the following 
sentences: 

1. Wanted: A servant who can cook and care 
for children. 2. If the seam of your gloves hurts 
you, turn inside out. 3. We went to pick flowers 
and fish. 4. I had great fun driving the horse from 
the top of the hayload. 5. The error has and will 
again be exploded. 6. It bears us back ninety years, 
when the eyes of the whole world were turned to- 
ward France. 7. Clean the meat thoroughly, then 
roll in flour. 8. She beats the mixture till smooth. 
9. I think he likes him better than you. 10. He 
has tried the old and new method of cure. 11. I 
will work for the success of this measure rather 
than the other. 12. Their intentions might and 
probably were good. 

Unity in Sentence Building. — Every good sen- 
tence is a well-knit sentence. Its parts all cohere. 
It contains but one central thought. It may be long, 
and may be made up of a variety of clauses and 
phrases; but these clauses and phrases are strictly 
subordinated to the clause or clauses expressing the 
main thought. In short, a good sentence is sym- 



202 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

metrical and firmly jointed. It exists for the sake 
of one thought, — a thought that stands out "with 
the high light upon it." The ideal sentence is an 
organism, from which everything that does not con- 
tribute to the completeness of the organism, is ex- 
cluded. Good sentences rarely contain parentheses. 
They come to an easy, natural close. A sentence 
that meets these requirements is said to possess 
Unity. But unity is merely one of the conditions 
of clearness and force. 

A sentence which wants unity is either shambling 
and rickety in structure, or heterogeneous in con- 
tent. Professor Meiklejohn gives the following 
specimen of a loose-jointed sentence: "I asked him 
to show me his picture, which he did, and pointed 
out one in particular, a portrait of a young man, 
painted, he said, by Wilson." 

Note the irrelevancy of the several thoughts in 
this sentence: "The admiral died in his ninety-first 
year, when the Thames was covered with ice eleven 
inches thick, during a severe winter when nearly 
all the birds perished." What is here said regard- 
ing the condition of the Thames should be the sub- 
ject of a distinct sentence. 

It should be remembered that a sentence which 
is clear and coherent can not contain more than 
one meaning of the same word. The following sen- 
tences illustrate this fault : This is my duty so long 
as I keep within the bounds of duty. He left this 
world, leaving a handsome fortune to his children. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 203 

The letters of many men of letters are not distin- 
guished above those of ordinary letter -writers. 
Feathers are heavier than nothing; nothing is 
heavier than lead; therefore feathers are heavier 
than lead. 

Every one that writes for the public should deem 
it his moral duty to make every sentence he writes 
as clear as it can be made. Clearness is, in its last 
analysis, truthfulness. Ambiguity is distortion, and 
distortion is essentially untruth. 

FORCE 

It is not usually sufficient that a thought be clearly 
and correctly expressed. For even then it may be 
feeble, dull, and therefore unimpressive. Vigor and 
vivacity of expression, command the reader's at- 
tention, stimulate him to think, and to grasp what 
is said. A thought adequately expressed is not only 
intelligible, but effective. Every sentence should be 
so worded and its parts so arranged as will best 
fit it to bring out all the strength of its contained 
thought. Let it be observed too that energy of ex- 
pression implies clearness. Ambiguity and force 
can never go together. 

Again, it should be observed that a forceful style is 
not appropriate to all varieties of thought. Unim- 
portant ideas, however clearly expressed, are not 
suited to emphatic and vigorous presentation. To 
clothe a thought with a quality foreign to it is to 
violate the law of fitness and harmony. To speak 



204 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

with energy of a tooth-pick or an infant's rattle 
is to utter either burlesque or bombast. 

DEVICES FOR SECURING FORCE 

It is not in the power of rules to make one a 
forceful writer. Without conviction, and strength 
of thought, no one can write forcefully. Yet the 
learner will find it extremely profitable to study and 
practice some of the ways in which increased im- 
pressiveness and distinction may be imparted to 
spoken or written thought. 

Plain Words. — Long, classical words may impart 
rhythm and dignity to language, but they rarely 
have the effect of promoting vigor and animation 
of expression. The short, simple words of the Ian 
guage have a sharpness and a native strength to 
which long, learned words are strangers. Hence, 
as a rule, a writer's style is made more vigorous by 
the use of plain words — the words of every day life. 

Run over in your mind such synonyms as the fol- 
lowing, and note how much more vivid is the shorter 
member of each pair of synonyms. Crazy and de- 
mented, steal and embezzle, guess and conjecture, 
get drunk and become intoxicated, be off and with- 
draw your presence, sweat and perspiration, pierce 
and penetrate, sick and indisposed, invalid and vale- 
tudinarian. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 205 

EXERCISE XIII 

Substitute a simpler word for each italicized ivord 
in the following sentences: 

Will you accord him this favor? 

See that the apartment is ventilated. 

Such penurious tendencies are not to be extirpated. 

This is to be his domicile. 

Let there be an interstice between the two parts. 

The termination of his career does not fulfil the 
promise of its commencement. 

She does not speak even her vernacular with pro- 
priety. 

You had better put an impediment on his rashness. 

We shall have a collation before the ride. 

To effectuate your purpose, get his influence. 

The schoolroom is palatial. 

The new training field will enhance athletics. 

He manipulates the mandolin well. 

The architect will make good use of all the po- 
tentialities of the old building. 

He is to inaugurate the new drill to-morrow. 

My companion seemed lost in his cogitations. 

To approximate to such a standard, is better than 
to reach a lower one. 

He has precipitated his return to this country. 

The lecturer is a fine-looking personage, but not 
an interesting speaker. 

This fact alone ought not to invalidate his argu- 
ment. 



206 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Why does he take cognizance of mere trifles? 

The celerity and the dexterity of his movements 
are remarkable. 

The singer has a captivating manner. 

The mendacity of this report is shameful. 

It is a fine locality. 

Specific Words. — The use of specific words tends 
to augment energy of style. Specific words are, as 
a rule, concrete; generic, abstract. Sound is ge- 
neric; creak, buzz, slam, clank, crash, roar, scream, 
rustle, and so forth, are specific. Animal, plant, 
flower, man, are generic; fox, ivy, rose, John Brown, 
are specific. Most of our general and abstract words 
are of classical origin ; most of our specific, concrete 
words are of Anglo-Saxon birth. Each class has its 
special uses. 

By sometimes substituting specific for generic 
terms, a writer can make his diction more graphic 
and animated. Specific words, being narrower and 
more sensuous than generic words, are more easily 
grasped. They suggest mental pictures and images. 
They summon the eye or the ear to assist the mind 
in the work of interpreting them. Being more fa- 
miliar to most persons, they are necessarily more in- 
teresting than their abstract neighbors. 

To say, "The crescent is waning before the cross," 
is more animated than " Mohammedanism is disap- 
pearing before the progress of Christianity." The 
Psalmist might have exclaimed, "Thou dost pre- 
serve me," "protect me," "befriend me," but how 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 207 

much more forcefully he expressed the same 
thoughts by saying, "Thou art my rock/' "my 
tower," "my fortress," "my shield." How much 
more vivid is "He fought like a tiger" than "He 
fought like an animal." Jesus uses the lily as repre- 
sentative of all flowers when He says, "Consider the 
lilies, how they grow," etc. 

What a mental picture is evoked by the words, 
"In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread." 
How indistinct in comparison are the words, "By 
hard work shalt thou earn the iood thou eatest." 

EXERCISE XIV 

Point out the specific words in the folloiving sen- 
tences. Substitute for each a generic word of sim- 
ilar meaning, and note the loss of vividness: 

1. Take My yoke upon you, and learn of Me. 
2. Ye are the salt of the earth. 3. Cincinnatus fol- 
lowed the plow. 4. The palace should not frown on 
the cottage. 5. Gray hairs should be respected. 6. 
They strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel. 7. I 
told him to his beard that he had deceived me. 8. 
There are tongues in trees, sermons in stones, books 
in brooks, and good in everything. 9. Strike while 
the iron is hot. 10. She was a sprightly maid of 
sixteen summers. 11. The pulpit and the bench 
should be above suspicion. 12. Strike for your altars 
and your fires. 13. Fiercely he brandished his glit- 
tering steel. 14. The bullet should give way to the 
ballot. 15. In these days bayonets think. 16. Do 

14 



208 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles? 
17. The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, and the leop- 
ard shall lie down with the kid;. the cow and the 
bear shall feed together. 18. Instead of the thorn 
shall come up the fir tree. 19. God shall wipe away 
all tears from their eyes. 

Note. — Nearly all the specific words in the foregoing sen- 
tence are examples of the figure of metonymy. 

Definition. — Metonymy is a figure of speech 
which consists in substituting the name of one thing 
for that of another, the two things being so closely 
associated with each other that the name of the one 
suggests that of the other. 

There are several varieties of metonymy based 
upon the relation of — 

1. Cause and effect; as — 
Gray hairs should be respected. 

Here gray hairs, which is the effect of old age, is 
mentioned instead of old age or old persons. Old 
age is the cause of gray hairs. 

2. The sign and the thing signified ; as — 
The crescent is waning before the cross. 

Here crescent, the sign of Mohammedanism, and 
cross, the sign of Christianity, are used instead of 
the religious systems they signify or symbolize. 

3. The container and the thing contained; as — 
His purse is his god. 

Here purse is mentioned instead of its contents, 
money. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 209 

4. The material and the thing made of it; as — 
He brandished his glittering steel. 

Here steel, the material, is used instead of sword, 
the thing made of steel. 

5. A part and the whole; as — 
The farmer employs four hands. 

This last variety of metonymy has a distinct name, 
synecdoche. 

Definition. — A synecdoche is that kind of me- 
tonymy in which a whole is put for a part, or a 
part for a whole. 

EXERCISE XV 

Use the following words metonymously in sen- 
tences of your own: Chair, sword, head, foot, wheel, 
scepter, bottle, heart, death, press (noun), gold, 
sail (noun), and gray matter. 

Brevity. — "Brevity is the soul of wit." It con- 
duces to neatness as well as force in the expression 
of thought. All needless words are so much dead 
weight. To overload a sentence with words is to 
dilute it. Whatever does not strengthen enfeebles. 
"The habit of writing compactly, of going straight to 
the point, of saying just what one has to say and 
then of stopping, is not always easy to acquire." 
Sentences concise in form and pregnant with thought 
are the weapons of a speaker or writer who is thor- 
oughly in earnest. Sentences made up with "picked 
and packed" words, always cut. Brevity is not only 
the soul of wit, but the fire of fervency. 



210 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Professor Mead wrote: "Brevity does not, how- 
ever, consist precisely in using few words, but in 
saying nothing superfluous. A narative of ten pages 
is short if it contains nothing but what is neces- 
sary. A narrative of twenty lines is long if it can 
.be contained in ten." 

Brevity is opposed to tautology, verbosity, and pro- 
lixity. "Tautology consists in repeating, with mere 
change of words, what has been already said;" as, 
"He was very fastidious and particular and hard to 
please." Here "particular" and "hard to please" 
repeat what is already expressed by "fastidious." 
In each of the following sentences the italicized 
words express virtually the same idea. Note the 
resulting feebleness of the sentences. 

The teacher criticizes and blames and finds fault 
with the pupils continually. 

The king issued a royal edict. 

His answer was vague and indefinite. 

The universal testimony of all men is that of all 
poetry Milton's is the most sublime. 

He was always employed in alleviating and reliev- 
ing the wants of others. 

Verbosity consists in using words that do not 
necessarily repeat ideas, but are yet wholly super- 
fluous. In the sentences below, the italicized words 
should be cut out: 

Who doubts but that intemperance is growing? 

He fell off of the horse. 

Do you think he will accept of the gift? 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 211 

I wrote to him a long letter last week. 

Being content with deserving a triumph, he re- 
fused the honor of it. 

I do not doubt but that he is sincere. 

It is evident that we must open up the whole 
question again. 

The different departments of science and of art 
mutually reflect light on each other. 

They returned back again to the same city from 
whence they came forth. 

From whence came they? 

I detected its flavor without even the tasting of it. 

I shall not waste my strength for nothing. 

Prolixity consists in descending into unnecessary 
details, — in giving prominence to insignificant par- 
ticulars. A prolix writer does not seem able to dis- 
criminate between the essentials and the non- 
essentials of a subject. He magnifies trifles at the 
expense of what is really important. Prolixity is, 
in effect at least, a synonym of tediousness. A 
bloated style is a heavy style, and a heavy style never 
fails to repel readers. 

Brevity may be secured by eschewing all useless 
words; by sometimes compressing a clause into a 
phrase, or a phrase into an equivalent word ; by us- 
ing the most apt of a number of synonyms ; by the 
skillful use of figurative expressions ; and by avoid- 
ing roundabout expressions, or circumlocutions. 



212 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

EXERCISE XVI 

Reconstruct the following sentences, improving 
them in respect to brevity: 

1. I shall go from thence to Chicago. 2. You can 
do it equally as well. 3. You and I both agree in 
this instance. 4. Like all new novelties, the device 
must win popularity. 5. He did not look to see where 
he was going to. 6. They feared the consequences 
that would follow. 7. She is a widow woman without 
means of support. 8. It has ragged extremities at 
both ends. 9. It must have been an interesting sight 
to see the two commanders on the platform. 10. In 
the universal patriotism of all our people is the na- 
tion's bulwark. 11. He bears disappointments with 
great equanimity of mind. 12. A gale of wind 
took off the unfinished roof. 13. There is often a 
fortune in a new discovery. 14. They all unani- 
mously consented to this change. 15. From whence 
came they? 16. The wrong was too intolerable to 
be borne. 17. The book is so written as to give the 
reader a sense of tediousness. (This sentence should 
be shortened to "The book is dull.") 18. He has 
been heard to reiterate again and again the story in 
which he gives an account of the impediments and 
hindrances that obstructed his way to the final suc- 
cess in which he at last won his wealth and reward. 
19. In his habitual silence on this subject, which 
comes from his taciturn disposition, he simply re- 
veals a characteristic unwillingness to lay open his 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 213 

mind to others. 20. The different branches of study 
in this course mutually reflect light on each other. 
21. I have got you now. 

Reduce each of the following clauses to a single 
word: a. that does not bend; b. that has no equal; 
c. that possesses all power ; d. that can not be heard ; 
e. that has no limit; f. that can not be translated; 
g. that can not be disproved ; h. that can not be un- 
derstood. 

Climax. — The word climax is from a Greek word 
meaning ladder. The derivation suggests that a 
climax is a form of expression in which the parts 
grow in strength and significance to the close. 

Definition.— A climax consists in placing related 
words, or phrases, or clauses, or sentences in the 
order of their importance or intensity, the least im- 
porting standing first ; as — 

All his books are written in a learned language; 
in a language which nobody hears from his mother 
or his nurse; in a language in which nobody ever 
quarrels, or drives bargains, or makes love; in a 
language in which nobody ever thinks. — Macaulay. 

The climax serves to impart force to the expres- 
sion of thought. The graduated arrangement of 
parts gratifies the ear and stimulates the mind. 

When the weaker terms are placed after the 
stronger, the expression becomes flat, insipid. Such 
an arrangement is called bathos or anticlimax. An 
anticlimax is sometimes intentionally employed to 
impart humor or satire to a statement. A climax 



214 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

produces an ascending effect; the anticlimax a de- 
scending. The one waxes, the other wanes. In 
the following sentence the ideas wane, and hence 
produce an anticlimax: "He lost his friends, his 
money, his dog at one fell swoop. " 

Note the climacteric structure of the following 
passages. Change the arrangement of some of them, 
and notice the loss of vigor: 

1. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swal- 
lowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. 

2. I plead for the rights of laboring men, for the 
rights of struggling women, for the rights of help- 
less children. 

3. We bid you welcome to the healthful skies and 
the verdant fields of New England. We greet your 
accession to the great inheritance which we have 
enjoyed. We welcome you to the blessings of good 
government and religious liberty. We welcome you 
to the treasures of science and the delights of learn- 
ing. We welcome you to the transcendent sweets of 
domestic life, to the happiness of kindred, and pa- 
rents, and children. We welcome you to the immeas- 
urable blessings of rational existence, the immortal 
hope of Christianity, and the light of everlasting 
truth ! — Webster. 

4. Without it [peace] commerce is vain, the ardor 
of industry is restrained, happiness is blasted, vir- 
tue sickens and dies. — Charles Sumner. 

5. The place was worthy of such a trial. It was 
the great hall of William Rufus, the hall which had 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 215 

resounded with acclamations at the inauguration 
of thirty kings ; the hall which had witnessed the just 
sentence of Bacon and the just absolution of Somers ; 
the hall where the eloquence of Strafford had for a 
moment aw r ed and melted a victorious party inflamed 
with just resentment; the hall where Charles had 
confronted the High Court of Justice with the placid 
courage which has half redeemed his fame. — 
Macaulay. 

6. Though I speak with the tongues of men and 
of angels, and have not charity, I am become as 
sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal. And though 
I have the gift of prophecy, and understand all 
mysteries, and all knowledge; and though I have 
all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and 
have not charity, I am nothing. And though I 
bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and though I 
give my body to be burned, and have not charity, 
it profiteth me nothing. — Bible. 

Antithesis. — By placing opposite things or ideas 
over against each other, each is brought out in 
stronger relief. Opposites, when placed in juxta- 
position, accentuate each the other. The idea of 
contrast, when expressed in language, is called an 
antithesis. 

Definition. — Antithesis is a figure which im- 
presses an idea or a thought by bringing it into the 
same conception with its opposite ; as — 

"A false balance is an abomination unto the Lord ; 
but a just weight is His delight/' 



216 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

The Proverbs are constructed almost wholly on 
the principle of antithesis. 

"Skillful use of antithesis produces an effect of 
epigrammatic pungency; excess of it, an effect of 
shallow cleverness. " This comment on the figure 
of antithesis, made by Professor Gardiner, is itself 
an excellent example of antithesis. . 

Neatness and compactness, as well as strength, 
are, as a rule, promoted by the antithetical struc- 
ture. The following passage from Samuel Johnson 
is given in illustration: 

"Dryden knew more of man in his general nature 
and Pope in his local manners. The notions of 
Dryden were formed by comprehensive speculation, 
and those of Pope by minute attention. There is 
more dignity in the knowledge of Dryden, and more 
certainty in that of Pope. 

"Poetry was not the sole praise of either : for both 
excelled likewise in prose; but Pope did not borrow 
his prose from his predecessor. The style of Dryden 
is capricious and varied; that of Pope is cautious 
and uniform. Dryden obeys the motions of his own 
mind; Pope constrains his mind to his own rules 
of composition. Dryden is sometimes vehement and 
rapid; Pope is always smooth, uniform, and gentle. 
Dryden's page is a natural field, rising into inequal- 
ities and diversified by the varied exuberance of 
abundant vegetation ; Pope's is a velvet lawn, shaven 
by the scythe, and levelled by the roller." 

An antithesis is not always in the form of a 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 217 

balanced sentence. The principle of contrast is often 
used effectively apart from parallelism of structure, 
as in Byron's description of the Battle of Waterloo, 
where he brings before the mind the rapturous joy 
of the music and the dance before the awful horrors 
of the battle broke upon the revelers. The piquancy 
of the following sentence is the result chiefly of bold 
contrast ; yet the sentence is not properly a balance. 
It was uttered by DeBray, the Huguenot martyr. 
"These shackles are more honorable to me than 
golden rings: when I hear their clank, methinks I 
listen to the music of sweet voices and the tinkling 
of lutes." 

Hyperbole. — Strong feeling sometimes expresses 
itself in exaggeration, not to deceive, but to impress 
the reader, as when David exclaims, "Rivers of 
water run down my eyes because they keep not 
Thy law." An exaggerated statement of this kind 
is known by the term Hyperbole. Of Saul and Jona- 
than David said, "They were swifter than eagles, 
they were stronger than lions." In Shakespeare we 
have, "Falstaff, thou globe of flesh, spotted o'er with 
continents of sin." Macaulay writes: "Somebody 
has said of the boldest figure in rhetoric, the hy- 
perbole, that it lies without deceiving." 

Its use has sometimes a humorous effect, as when 
Irving says of the schoolmaster of Sleepy Hollow: 
"His hands dangled a mile out of his sleeves." 

Again: "It requires a surgical operation to get a 
joke well into a Scotch understanding." 



218 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

All trite or forced hyperboles serve only to deaden 
the interest of the reader. When used too fre- 
quently they lose their force. 

The Epigram. — Another figure that tends to make 
discourse keen and vivid is the epigram. The term 
is applied to any terse, pointed saying having the 
nature of a proverb. The more pungent epigrams 
are those in which there is an apparent contradic- 
tion between the form of the language and the mean- 
ing really conveyed. An epigram of the latter sort 
has the nature of a paradox. The following stanza 
will help us grasp the spirit of the epigram : 
"An epigram should be, if right, 
Short, simple, pointed, keen, and bright, — 

A lively little thing! 
Like wasp, with taper body, bound 
By lines — not many — neat and round; 
All ending in a sting." 

EXERCISE XVII 

Reflect on the following examples of epigram until 
you catch their significance. Notice the play on 
words in some of them. Point out all other figures 
of speech that you detect: 

1. Verbosity is cured by a wide vocabulary. 

2. The favorite has no friends. 

3. Hasten slowly. 

4. When I am weak, then am I strong. — Paul. 

5. When you have nothing to say, say it. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 219 

6. By indignities men come to dignities. 

7. Never less alone than when alone. 

8. It is a custom more honored in the breach than 
in the observance. 

9. Hell is paved with good intentions. 

10. He is richest who is content with the least. 

11. A remedy worse than the disease. 

12. Beauty, when unadorned, adorned the most. 

13. Failures are the pillars of success. 

14. While we look not at the things which are 
seen, but at the things which are not seen.— Paul. 

15. Cowards die many times before their deaths ; 
the valiant taste death but once. — Shakespeare. 

16. No pain, no pleasure. 

17. In order to be as good as our forefathers were, 
we must be better. — Wendell Phillips. 

18. Not to know me argues yourself unknown. 

19. That which is everybody's business is no- 
body's business. — Izaak Walton. 

20. Conspicuous for its absence. 

21. Discretion is the better part of valor. 

It should be observed that epigrams need the 
emphasis of infrequency. Where they abound they 
are seldom found. 

Interrogation. — A common mode of promoting 
energy of expression is to give sentences occasionally 
the interrogative form instead of the declarative. 
Such a question is not asked for information. It is 
simply an emphatic way of affirming or denying 
something. It is generally referred to as the figure 



220 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

of Interrogation. The judicious use of this figure 
helps to insure variety of sentence structure, and 
thus relieve monotony of expression. 

If Jesus had said, "The life is more than meat, and 
the body is more than raiment," He would have ex- 
pressed the thought clearly, but not so forcefully as 
He did by putting the affirmation thus : "Is not the 
life more than meat, and the body than raiment?" 
Paul's questions, "Who goeth a warfare any time 
at his own charges? who planteth a vineyard, and 
eateth not the fruit thereof?" are an emphatic way 
of saying, "No man goeth a warfare any time at 
his own charges; no man planteth a vineyard and 
eateth not the fruit thereof." 

What a strong denial is expressed in, "Can the 
Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots?" 
How emphatic is Patrick Henry's denial, when put 
thus : "Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be pur- 
chased at the price of chains and slavery?" "Who 
shall lay anything to the charge of God's elect?" is 
a vigorous way of saying, "No one shall lay any- 
thing to the charge of God's elect." 

The literature of oratory, as well as sacred litera- 
ture, is replete with questions used for the purpose 
of giving point and animation to language. 

Rhetorical Exclamation. — When an exclama- 
tion is used for rhetorical effect, it is sometimes 
called a figure of exclamation, or a rhetorical ex- 
clamation; as — 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 221 

What a piece of work is man! how noble in rea- 
son! how infinite in faculties; in form and moving, 
how express and admirable! in action, how like an 
angel! in apprehension, how like a god! the beauty 
of the world! the paragon of animals! — Shake- 
speare. 

EXERCISE XVIII 

Change each of the following rhetorical interroga- 
tions and exclamations to the form of a statement , 
and notice whether it gains or loses in effectiveness: 

1. Was there ever anything so delightful? 

2. How bright and happy Eden must have been! 

3. And yet what harmony was in him! what 
music even in his discords! 

4. How quick the change from joy to woe! 
How check'rd is our lot below ! 

5. Is this a time to be gloomy and sad, 

When our Mother Nature laughs around, 
And even the deep blue heavens look glad, 
And gladness breathes from the blossoming 
ground ? 

— Bryant. 

6. What fellowship hath righteousness with un- 
righteousness ? and what communion hath light with 
darkness ? and what concord hath Christ with Belial ? 
or what part hath he that believeth with an in- 
fidel?— Bible. 



222 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

7. And what is so rare as a day in June? 
Then, if ever, come perfect days. 

— Lowell. 

8. How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable 
Seem to me all the uses of this world! 

— Shakespeare. 

Irony — Definition. — Irony is a kind of sarcasm 
so expressed that the language, taken literally, ex- 
presses the opposite of what is intended ; as — 

"And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked 
them, and said, Cry aloud: for he is a god; either 
he is talking, or is pursuing, or he is in a journey, 
or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked." 
— Bible. 

The following stanza from Whittier is a typical 
example of irony: 

What has the gray-haired prisoner done? 
Has murder stained his hands with gore? 

Not so; his crime is a fouler one — 
God made the old man poor. 

Explain the irony in the eleventh verse of Exodus 
14, and in the second verse of Job 12. 

Inverted Order. — It is desirable, sometimes, to 
throw into striking prominence a particular word, 
phrase, or clause of a sentence. This is done by 
placing such element in the most emphatic posi- 
tion in the sentence. Any element of a sentence is 
thrown into relief by placing it out of its ordinary 
position. By this means we can throw the emphasis 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 223 

on almost any part of the sentence. Such a change 
of position is called inversion. 

The most emphatic places in a sentence are the 
beginning and the end. These places catch the eye 
most readily. At the beginning of a sentence or 
a clause is the ordinary position of the subject; at 
the end, that of the predicate. Hence, the subject 
is emphasized by being placed near or at the close 
of the sentence; the predicate by being placed at 
the beginning. The predicate adjective, or the ob- 
ject of a verb may be placed before the verb; the 
modifier after the noun modified, etc. The princi- 
ple of emphasis may be stated thus: Give the im- 
portant elements of the sentence the important 
places. 

Of this principle the translators of the Bible often 
availed themselves; as, "Blessed is He that cometh 
in the name of the Lord/' and "Silver and gold 
have I none; but such as I have give I thee." How 
much these sentences would be enfeebled by alter- 
ing the arrangement into, "He that cometh in the 
name of the Lord is blessed," and "I have neither 
silver nor gold, but I give thee what I have." See, 
also, the beatitudes, in the fifth chapter of Matthew. 

Note the distinction given to the adverbs on and 
forward in this sentence by putting them before 
their respective verbs: "On swept the infantry — 
forward streamed the cavalry." How conspicuous 
the adverb seldom in, "Seldom had such a sight 
been seen in Rome." Compare, "It may seem im- 

15 



224 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

possible, but I am determined to undertake the 
task," with "Impossible as it may seem, the task 
I shall yet undertake." How much more spring and 
vigor in the second form than in the first. "Great 
is the Lord, and greatly to be praised" would lose 
not only in force, but in euphony as well, if arranged 
into "The Lord is great, and He is to be praised 
greatly." Note the loss in expressiveness when, 
"Scoundrel though he was, he still had some sense 
of honor," is changed to "He still had some sense of 
honor, though he was a scoundrel." 

By putting the subordinate clause of a complex 
sentence before the principal clause, the latter is 
made prominent, — emphatic. Thus: "Small though 
the garrison was, they resolved to hold the for- 
tress against an army ten times their number." 

EXERCISE XIX 

What elements in the folloiving sentences are 
made emphatic by inversion? 

1. If ye know these things, happy are ye if ye 
do them. 2. A black day will it be to somebody. 
3. Some war, some plague, some famine they fore- 
see. 4. From morning till night, from week's end 
to week's end, his tireless brain was never inactive. 
5. The most versatile and myriad-minded man of 
his age, and one of the greatest geniuses of all time, 
was William Shakespeare. 6. There was a little 
glen, green and secluded and charming. 7. Upon 
them came calamity, swift as the lightning. 8. If 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 225 

you have tears, prepare to shed them now. 9. Great 
is the mystery of time and space. 10. The only fit- 
ting name we can give to such conduct as this is 
cowardice. 11. Thy eternal sway all the race of 
men obey. 12. Me he restored to my office and him 
he hanged. 13. Back, back to its depths went the 
ebbing tide. 14. Before high Heaven and in the face 
of all the world, I swear eternal fidelity to the just 
cause. 15. In morals as in mathematics a straight 
line is the shortest. 16. Few and short were the 
prayers we said. 

EXERCISE XX 

Make the following sentences stronger by making 
ivhatever changes are necessary to that end: 

1. Homicide is sure to be eventually detected. 

2. He must not only reform at once, but his 
welfare depends on it. 

3. This is indeed a beautiful view. 

4. Figures will suggest themselves spontane- 
ously, if one's imagination is awake. 

5. We do not grow old, but young, while we con- 
verse with what is above us. 

6. They who build beneath the stars build too 
low. 

7. You must bear what you would not, if you do 
what you should not. 

8. Our grand business is to do what lies clearly 
at hand, and not to see what lies dimly in the dis- 
tance. 



226 ESSENTIALS OP ENGLISH 

9. Abstain, when you doubt. 

10. I hate to see things done by halves. Do it 
boldly, if it be right ; leave it undone, if it be wrong. 

11. Prepare for a change in prosperity; hope for 
one in adversity. 

12. We can not write clearly unless we think 
clearly; but we can always express our thoughts 
intelligibly if we are willing to take pains enough, 
when they are clear. 

13. The chances are that force and elegance are 
within our reach, when we have once learned to 
write clearly. 

14. I do not discourage, I do not condemn, this. 

15. Our fathers lighted a feeble watch-fire on the 
Rock of Plymouth, two hundred and sixty years ago. 

16. The banner of St. George floated in triumph 
over their heads. 

17. The people perish where there is no vision. 

18. The age of bullets is not over, though the 
age of reading and of thinking men has come. 

19. It is never of our tenderness that we repent, 
but of our severity, when death, the great reconciler, 
has come. 

20. The rain, the welcome rain, roars down the 
gutter like a river. 

21. Tyranny begins where law ends. 

PARAGRAPHS 

Every prose composition of any length is divided 
into sections called paragraphs. Each paragraph 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 227 

treats of a distinct point or phase of the theme. A 
very short composition, treating of a single point, 
and not subdivided, is thought of as a paragraph. 

The first line of every written or printed para- 
graph should be indented; that is, it should begin 
a little farther to the right than the other lines. 

Each paragraph should be a unit; that is, it should 
treat of but one point or topic of the subject. The 
principle of unity of the paragraph should be so 
marked as to make it easy to give a brief title to 
each paragraph which would indicate its contents. 

"A paragraph, then, is a connected series of 
sentences constituting the development of a single 
topic." 

The paragraph may be as small as one sentence, 
or it may extend over a considerable part of the 
subject. In any case, however, it has a oneness 
and office of its own, being a clearly defined step 
in the progress of the composition. 

The topic is not always definitely stated. When 
it is not so stated it is diffused through the whole 
paragraph. But in either case, a definite topic must 
exist in the mind of the writer, if he would be 
sure that the paragraph shall constitute a definite 
step in the development of the theme. 

Examine the paragraphs in the folloiving pas- 
sage. Give each paragraph an appropriate title: 

The bird is little more than drift of the air 
brought into form by plumes; the air is in all its 
quills, it breathes through its whole frame and flesh, 



228 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

and glows with air in its flying, like blown flame : it 
rests upon the air, subdues it, surpasses it, out- 
races it; — is the air, conscious of itself, conquering 
itself, ruling itself. 

Also, into the throat of the bird is given the voice 
of the air. All that in the wind itself is weak, wild, 
useless in sweetness, is knit together in its song. 
As we may imagine the wild form of the cloud 
closed into the perfect form of the bird's wings, so 
the wild voice of the cloud into its ordered and 
commanded voice; unwearied, rippling through the 
clear heaven in its gladness, interpreting all intense 
passion through the soft spring nights, bursting 
into acclaim and rapture of choir at daybreak, or 
lisping and twittering among the boughs and hedges 
through the heat of day, like little winds that only 
make the cowslip bells shake, and ruffle the petals 
of the wild rose. 

Also, upon the plumes of the bird are put the 
colors of the air: on these the gold of the cloud, 
that can not be gathered by any covetousness ; the 
rubies of the cloud, the vermilion of the cloud-bar, 
and the flame of the cloud-crest, and the snow of the 
cloud, and its shadow, and the melted blue of the 
deep wells of the sky — all these, seized by the creat- 
ing spirit, and woven into films and threads of 
plume; with wave on wave following and fading 
along breast, and throat, and opened wings, infinite 
as the dividing of the foam and the sifting of the 
sea-sand; — even the white down of the cloud seem- 
ing to flutter up between the stronger plumes, seen, 
but too soft for touch. — Ruskin. 

A paragraph may begin with a sentence that 
states, in compact form, the topic of which the 
paragraph is to treat. This sentence is, as a rule, 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 229 

relatively short; and is usually followed by longer 
sentences which serve to explain, illustrate, or 
limit the topic sentence. 

In the following passage from Farrar's "Life of 
Christ" observe how the first or topic sentence is 
expanded and illustrated by the long sentences that 
follow : 

"There is scarcely a scene or object familiar to the 
Galilee of that day, which Jesus did not use as a 
moral illustration of some glorious promise or moral 
law. He spoke of green fields and springing flowers, 
and the budding of the vernal trees; of the red or 
lowering sky; of sunrise and sunset; of wind and 
rain; of night and storm; of clouds and lightning; 
of stream and river; of stars and lamps; of honey 
and salt ; of quivering bulrushes and burning weeds ; 
of rent garments and bursting wineskins; of eggs 
and serpents; of pearls and pieces of money; of 
nets and fish. Wine and wheat, corn and oil, stew- 
ards and gardeners, laborers, and employers, kings 
and shepherds, travelers, and fathers of families, 
courtiers in soft clothing and brides in nuptial robes 
— all these are found in His discourses." 

Notice how aptly the paragraph below, from 
Ruskin, illustrates the same principle: 

"Of all inorganic substances, acting in their own 
proper nature, and without assistance or combina- 
tion, water is the most wonderful. If we think of 
it as the source of all the changef ulness and beauty 
of clouds ; as the instrument by which the earth was 



230 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

modeled into symmetry, and its crags chiseled into 
grace ; then in the form of snow ; in the foam of the 
torrent — in the morning mist, in the broad lake and 
glancing river ; finally in that which is to all human 
minds the best emblem of unwearied, unconquer- 
able power, the wild, various, fantastic, tameless 
unity of the sea; what shall we compare to this 
mighty, this universal element, for glory and for 
beauty? It is like trying to paint a soul." 

Again, it is often desirable to sum up the essence 
of a paragraph in the closing sentence. By this 
means the gist of the paragraph is left in the read- 
er's mind. 

The last sentence in the following famous para- 
graph, from Lord Bacon, connotes, if it does not 
denote, the thought of the entire passage: 

"To spend too much time in studies is sloth; to 
use them too much for ornament is affectation; to 
make judgment wholly by their rules is the humor 
of a scholar; they perfect nature and are perfected 
by experience; for natural abilities are like natural 
plants, that need pruning by study; and studies 
themselves do give forth directions too much at 
large, except they be bounded in by experience. 
Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire 
them, and wise men use them; for they teach not 
their own use; but that is a wisdom without them 
and above them, won by observation. Read not to 
contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for 
granted, nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 231 

and consider. Some books are to be tasted, others 
to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and 
digested; that is, some books are to be read only 
in parts, others to be read, but not curiously; and 
some few to be read wholly and with diligence and 
attention. Reading maketh a full man, conference 
a ready man, and writing an exact man ; and, there- 
fore, if a man write little, he had need have a great 
memory; if he confer little, he had need have, a pres- 
ent wit; and, if he read little, he had need have 
much cunning to seem to know that he doth not. 
Histories make men wise; poets witty, the mathe- 
matics subtile; natural philosophy deep; moral, 
grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend." 

Regard for unity in the paragraph will do much 
to make one's composition easy to read and to under- 
stand. But unity alone is not sufficient. The sev- 
eral paragraphs may possess this principle, and yet 
be so distinct from one another that the whole will 
seem broken or disjointed. To prevent this fault, 
it is necessary to take special pains to make the 
transition from paragraph to paragraph as easy 
and natural as possible. 

"The transition from paragraph to paragraph 
should be so smooth that your reader will feel no 
break in the thought, but merely a natural and easy 
step forward. This result may be accomplished in 
various ways. 

" Observe that paragraphs are not formed by cut- 
ting up continuous discourse into mechanical lengths, 



232 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

any more than stanzas are made by cutting up 
poetry. 

"On the contrary, continuous discourse grows by 
adding paragraph to paragraph, as our thoughts 
pass from point to point of the subject in orderly 
succession." 

An easy transition from paragraph to paragraph, 
as well as from sentence to sentence, is often ef- 
fected by the use of such link-words and phrases 
as but, yet, still, nevertheless, however, on the con- 
trary, for all that, also, likeivise, besides, again, 
furthermore, moreover, in like manner, too, in ad- 
dition to this, therefore, consequently, accordingly, 
thus, then, so, hence, as a result, as a consequence, 
presently, thereafter, meanwhile, thereupon, even- 
tually, to conclude, and so on. 

The foregoing link-words are by no means the 
only ones that help to make the passage from sen- 
tence to sentence or from paragraph to paragraph 
easy. The more common words, he, she, it, this, 
that, these, those, former, and latter are often ser- 
viceable for the same purpose, inasmuch as they are 
commonly used to refer to some person or thing 
previously mentioned. 

These connecting words, however, should not be 
used thoughtlessly; that is, merely to "fill up," or 
make the transition "smooth." They should be em- 
ployed only when the sense or thought warrants 
their use. Especially are and and but over-used 
by careless speakers and writers. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 233 

EXERCISE XXI 

Write a well-knit paragraph on each of the fol- 
loiving topics: 

1. The Practical Effects of Wireless Telegraphy. 

2. The Effects of Rapid Transit. 

3. "The Borrower is Servant to the Lender." 

4. A Plea for Short Lessons. 

5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Studying 
Alone. 

6. What Is a Paragraph? 

7. Why One Should Enjoy One's Appointed Work. 

EXERCISE XXII 

1. Write two paragraphs, thp first asking a ques- 
tion or several related questions, and the second an- 
swering the question or questions. 

2. From books or other literature which you have 
read recently, make a list of words or phrases that 
aid in transition. 

3. Write a paragraph in which the first sentence 
is a topic sentence, and is explained by the sentences 
that follow. 

4. Write two paragraphs; in the first describe a 
city street at six A. M.; in the second, at six P. M. 

5. Write two paragraphs, in the first describe a 
mountainside as it looked before it was swept by 
fire; in the second as it looked after the fire. 



234 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

BUILDING A VOCABULARY 

To be successful in public address or in writing 
for the public, one must first be in possession of a 
large stock of ideas and a correspondingly large 
stock of words. Artists express ideas in colors and 
in stone, inventors in machinery, and so on, but ora- 
tors and writers must express their thoughts 
through the medium of words. All the great masters 
of our noble tongue are indefatigable students of 
the dictionary, of etymology, of works on synonyms, 
etc., but they all testify to the fact that the only 
safe, certain, and thorough method of mastering 
words, With their contained ideas, is in the con- 
scientious, sympathetic reading of good literature. 

Dictionaries like ours did not exist at the time 
of Spenser, Shakespeare, or Milton. It was chiefly 
through reading and conversation that they ac- 
acquired their wealth of words. "Words which we 
acquire directly from a good writer," says Professor 
Hart, "make a definite impression, and are retained 
in the memory. They have a vitality which is lost 
in the columns of a dictionary. When we repeat 
them in our writing we feel that we are safe, be- 
cause we are acting under the best guidance." 

Thomas Carlyle made himself a storehouse of 
words by mastering the works of Samuel Taylor Col- 
eridge and the masterpieces of the German writers, 
Goethe and Schiller. Henry Drummond, in turn, 
stocked himself with words by absorbing Carlyle's 
and Ruskin's great books. But these and all other 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 235 

famous writers and orators were enthusiastic stu- 
dents of our English Bible. The pages of their 
books are luminous with Biblical allusions. No 
other literary work comprises so vast a store of the 
simple, strong, crisp, idiomatic words of the English 
language as does the Bible. It is here that we find 
the native purity and vigor of our tongue crystal- 
lized. 

I can not do better than to insert here the testi- 
mony, as to the literary value of the Bible, of men 
who can speak as those having authority. Of John 
Ruskin, Professor Cook, of Yale University, writes : 

"John Ruskin is certainly the greatest master that 
the present century has produced of pure, idiomatic, 
vigorous, and eloquent English prose; and as the 
first volume of his 'Modern Painters/ perhaps his 
best work, appeared over forty years ago, when he 
was a recent 'Graduate of Oxford/ his style was per- 
fectly formed while he was yet a young man. How 
was it formed ? In one of his latest writings he has 
told us that in his childhood, as a part of his home 
education, his mother required him to commit to 
memory, and repeat to her, passages from the Bible. 
A similar custom, as some of us old men know, pre- 
vailed here in New England over half a century ago, 
and I hope that in some families it lingers still. 
Ruskin gives us the exact list, twenty-six in number, 
of the psalms and chapters which he thus learned by 
heart; and as the selection was in the main an ex- 
cellent one, we need not seek further for the secret 



236 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

of his admirable diction and perfect command of 
English phraseology/' 

Referring to his knowledge of the Bible acquired 
by studying it under the guidance of his mother, 
Ruskin himself said: 

"And truly, though I have picked up the elements 
of a little further knowledge — in mathematics, me- 
teorology, and the like, in after life,— and owe not 
a little to the teaching of many people, this maternal 
installation of my mind in that property of chapters, 
I count very confidently the most precious, and, on 
the whole, the one essential part of all my educa- 
tion." 

Macaulay wrote: 

"Bunyan's English was the English of the Bible. 
By constant perusal his mind was thoroughly steeped 
in Holy Scripture; he thought its thoughts, spoke 
its words, adopted its images. 'In no book/ writes 
Mr. Green, 'do we see more clearly the new imagi- 
native force which had been given to the common life 
of Englishmen by their study of the Bible/ Those 
who desire to become, like him, masters of our grand 
mother tongue, and use it as an instrument for sway- 
ing the hearts, and elevating the souls, and instruct- 
ing the minds of others, can take no better way to 
this end — to say nothing of its higher purposes — 
than to familiarize themselves, as he did, by constant 
perusal, with our English Bible." 

In his "History of Elizabethan Literature," Saints- 
bury writes : 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 237 

"But great as are Bacon and Raleigh, they can not 
approach as writers of prose, the company of schol- 
arly divines who produced — what is probably the 
greatest prose work in any language — the Author- 
ized Version of the Bible in English." 

"Intense study of the Bible," wrote Coleridge, 
"will keep any writer from being vulgar in point of 
style." 

After President Lincoln had delivered his Gettys- 
burg oration, he was asked to tell how he had mas- 
tered his inimitable diction. His answer was, in 
part, that he had for many years been an eager, 
untiring student of the English Bible. 

The exercises below are given with a view to aid- 
ing the student in acquiring a copious vocabulary. 

EXERCISE XXIII 

a. Embody in sentences the folloiving words and 
phrases: 

Brusque, pert, overweening, priggish, fish for 
compliments, pique one's self, opinionated, coy, 
sheepish, without beat of drum, vaunt, flourish of 
trumpets, tall talk, bombast, on stilts, in high 
feather, charlatan, jubilant, bravado. 

b. Simplify the wording of the following locu- 
tions : 

At the expiration of five years; extreme felicity; 
incur the danger; a sanguinary engagement; ac- 
cepted signification (of a word, etc.,) ; exceedingly 



238 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

opulent; paternal sentiments; a votary of Bacchus; 
in this melancholy predicament; "an individual des- 
ignated by the not uncommon cognomen of Smith ;" 
the precursor of a stupendous atmospheric dis- 
turbance. 

c. Explain the meaning and etymology of the fol- 
lowing. Learn to spell them: 

Galvanism, guillotine, jovial, boycott, fauna, flora, 
July, August, palace, bacchanalian, saturnine, mer- 
curial, dunce, simony, meander. 

d. Use each of the following locutions in a sen- 
tence : 

Come short of; come to nothing; come to one's 
self; come to the front; come to blows; come to 
want ; come of age ; with an eye to ; keep an eye on ; 
in the mind's eye ; drop off ; drop away ; drop in ; 
drop out; drop down; drop a line; drop a contro- 
versy ; drop an acquaintance ; drop anchor ; run 
after; run across; run down; run out; run a risk; 
run amuck; run riot; run to seed; run counter to; 
run a blockade. 

e. Write the opposite word to — 

Pessimist, magnanimous, indigenous, synonym, 
antediluvian, peroration, analysis, inductive, nadir, 
trans-Atlantic, courage, celestial, supernatural, ben- 
ediction, benevolence, permanent, positive, prosper- 
ity, generic, predecessor, superior, opaque, domestic, 
aggravate (make worse), zenith, oriental, promis- 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 239 

cuous, maximum, absolute, magnify, repulsion, ob- 
jective, homogeneous. 

/. Use each of the following phrases in a sen- 
tence: 

The thread of argument, poisoned words; hatch 
a plot; stifle a sigh; the eloquence of gold; soil a 
reputation; a heart of oak; struck with terror; an 
icy reception; to feed with hopes; the gnawing of 
envy ; the torch of science ; the reins of government. 

g. Explain the etymology of the following words: 

Academy, atlas, calico, dahlia, daisy, epicure, hy- 
giene, milliner, macadamize, sardine, tantalize, tariff. 

h. Substitute an equivalent word or phrase for 
each word in italics, in the folloiving passages: 

Words are embalmed ideas of men. Acquisition 
of ideas furthers acquisition of words, and vice versa. 
To some extent ideas can be bred by the study of 
mere words. The attempt to discriminate between 
words that mean nearly, not quite, the same thing, 
results in a distinct gain in thought, and in power 
of thought. Shakespeare's tvorks contain about fif- 
teen thousand different words ; the King James ver- 
sion of the Bible fewer than six thousand. To gain 
new words and new ideas, the student must compel 
himself to read slowly. Impatient to hurry on and 
learn how the tale or poem ends, many a youth is 
accustomed to read so rapidly as to miss the best 
part of what the author is trying to say. To get 

16 



240 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

at the thoughts and really to retain the valuable 
expression, the student must scrutinize and ponder as 
he reads. Each word must be thoroughly understood; 
its exact value in the sentence must be grasped. The 
dictionary is not a magic book, ready to explain 
every delicate shading that a great author gives a 
word in a particular connection. In reading silently 
it is due the author to read with as much expression 
as if we were pronouncing the word aloud. One 
should mentally give every word and phrase its 
proper accent, should feel the value of every punctu- 
ation mark. Literature is full of words descriptive 
of things that all have seen or heard. 

i. For each of the following words write its cor- 
responding adjective: 

Aristotle, charity, compare, capacity, hero, acad- 
emy, decision, Hercules, eulogy, define, prevail, Paul, 
Plato, permit, Naples, pronoun, metropolis, system, 
Shakespeare, pronoun, Christ. 

j. Learn all that a complete dictionary can tell 
you about the following words, and report to the 
class: 

Element, extenuate, attenuate, countenance, eu- 
phemism, parsimony, plagiarize, awful, nice, forti- 
tude, oriental, feint, paragon, hypothesis, weird, pre- 
rogative, clever, caustic, pungent, emeritus, feudal, 
sequence, cadence, categorical, spasmodic, fortuitous, 
herald, plight, regime. 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 241 

k. Substitute an equivalent word or phrase for 
each word in italics, in the following passage: 

Let no one then underrate the importance of the 
study of words. Daniel Webster was often seen ab- 
solved in the study of an English dictionary. Lord 
Chatham read the folio dictionary of Baily twice 
through, examining each word attentively, dwelling 
on its peculiar import and modes of construction, 
and thus endeavoring to bring the ivhole range of 
our language completely under his control. One of 
the most distinguished American authors is said to 
be in the habit of reading the dictionary through 
about once a year. His choice of fresh and forceful 
terms has provoked at times the charge of pedantry; 
but, in fact, he has but fearlessly used the wealth 
of the language that lies buried in the pages of Noah 
Webster. It is only by thus ivorking in the mines 
of language that one can fill his storehouses of ex- 
pression, so as to be above the necessity of using 
cheap and common words, or even using these with 
no subtle discrimination of their meanings. William 
Pinkney, the great American advocate, studied the 
English language profoundly, not so much to ac- 
quaint himself with the nice distinctions of its philo- 
sophical terms, as to acquire copiousness, variety, 
and splendor of expression. He studied the diction- 
ary, page after page, content with nothing less than 
a mastery of the ivhole language, as a body of ex- 
pression, in its primitive derivative stock. Rufus 
Choate once said to one of his students : "You don't 



242 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

want a diction gathered from the newspapers, caught 
from the air, common and unsuggestive ; but you 
want one whose every word is full-freighted with 
suggestion and association, with beauty and power." 

I. The following adjectives apply primarily to ma- 
terial objects, which may be known through the 
senses. But each may be raised to a higher use, 
being made to designate some trait of character, or 
some other abstract idea. Observe the various du- 
ties that the adjective high was persuaded into doing 
at the call of Shakespeare. He writes of high feats, 
high hope, high heaven, high exploits, high deeds, 
high desert, high perfection, high designs, high good 
trim, high descent, high resolve, high reward. Every 
one knows what is meant by fine sand, fine cloth, 
fine salt, etc.; but we may speak of fine deeds, fine 
sense of honor, fine courage, fine bearing, and so 
on. 

In like manner, make each of the following ad- 
jectives modify as many different nouns as, in your 
judgment, it can modify: Bitter, sweet, rough, 
smooth, dull, sharp, keen, brilliant, insipid, soft, 
sour, glowing, hazy, burning, transparent, misty, 
cold. 

m. Suggest a synonymous word or phrase for 
each word in italics, in the following excerpt: 

In every gentle and submissive way,. Jesus tried 
to please those with whom He came in contact. Be- 
cause He was so gentle and unobtrusive, the scribes 
and elders supposed that He would be easily in- 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 243 

fluenced by their teachings. . . . They [rabbis] 
claimed that it was their office to explain the Scrip- 
tures, and that it was His place to accept their in- 
terpretation. They were indignant that He should 
stand in opposition to their word. They knew that 
no authority could be found in Scripture for their 
traditions. They realized that in spiritual under- 
standing Jesus was far in advance of them. . . . 
"It is written" was His reason for every *act that 
varied from the family customs. . . . They [His 
brothers] insisted that the traditions must be 
heeded as if they were the requirements of God. 
They even regarded the precepts of men more highly 
than the Word of God, and they were greatly an- 
noyed at the clear penetration of Jesus in distin- 
guishing between the false and the true. 

n. Use in sentences of your own, the italicized 
words in the sentences below. Learn to spell the 
words: 

A brave retreat is a brave exploit. 

A carper can cavil at anything. 

A custom more honored in the breach than in the 
observance. 

He spoke in a dogmatical tone. 
• A fault confessed is half redressed. 

A man never surfeits of too much honesty. 

Dexterity comes by experience. 

Faint praise is disparagement. 

Temporizing is sometimes great wisdom. 

Too much consulting confounds. 



244 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

o. Report to the class all that the dictionary tells 
you respecting the folloiving words. Use in sen- 
tences the six words (of the list) which to you are 
the least familiar: 

Meadow, studded, illustrious, benefactor, dog- 
matic, resentment, handicap, machination, accretion, 
lucrative, bravado, tumultuous, physicist, liturgy, 
discard, disparage, ameliorate, deteriorate, inade- 
quate, conversely, collate, idiosyncrasy, lair, taciturn, 
veracious, voracious, venal, venial, turpitude, dic- 
tion, barbarism, perspicuous, perspicacious, lassi- 
tude. 

p. Use correctly each of these phrases: 

Disinterested motives; with bated breath; with 
open arms; brow-beaten; influence over; influence 
with; impatient with; impatient of (a proceeding) ; 
hankering after; curry favor with; pander to; look 
askance; carry coals to Newcastle; bear with; bear 
up; bear inquiry; breach of faith; breach of prom- 
ise ; breach of the peace ; take leave ; take heed ; take 
heart; take to heart; succeed to; succeed in; touch 
upon; touch at; taste of; taste for; trespass on; 
trespass against ; warn of ; warn against ; responsible 
for; responsible to; pursuant to; perish with; per- 
ish by; connive at; embark on; embark in; eager 
to; eager for; reconcile with; reconcile to; at his 
wits' ends. 

q. State the derivation and present meaning of 
each of the folloiving words: 

Bankrupt, sincere, egregious, gregarious, desul- 



EFFECTIVE COMPOSITION 245 

tory, canard, poltroon, imbecile, caprice, right, 
wrong, solary, kidnap, tribulation, parlor, scrupu- 
lous, supercilious, intoxicate, kind, prejudice, dis- 
aster, pony, idiot, miser, dun, polite, cynical, expli- 
cate, astonish, inculcate, dilapidated, radical, car- 
dinal, digress, attention, robust, parasol, salient, at- 
tract, cosmopolitan, automobile, ante-bellum, Boer, 
vandalism, phonograph, psychology, recipe, kinder- 
garten, puerile, crusade, pompadour, tyro, the bitter 
end. 

r. Work the folloiving phrases into sentences: 
A flying column ; as the crow flies ; come off with 
flying colors ; fly in the face of ; foot it ; on the foot- 
ing of ; set on foot ; free course ; free from ; free with ; 
a free translation ; free of ; a friend of ; a friend to ; 
wild-goose chase; worm one's way; castles in the 
air; liberal arts; liberal education; a prolix talker. 

s. Report to the class the derivation of these 
words. Work the first eight into sentences: 

Cynosure, fustian, hector, jeremiad, maudlin, pas- 
quinade, stentorian, stoical, tawdry, canter, derrick, 
pheasant, magic, lynch, guy (noun, verb), sand- 
wich, bedlam, quixotic. 



PART FIVE 



Accuracy in the Use of Words 

Dr. Ralcy Husted Bell says: "I can scarcely 
conceive of anything so distasteful as the slovenly 
use of words on the one hand, or the pedantic display 
of them on the other. There is, however, a right 
usage of words which is not only pleasing to the 
ear, but necessary to the best intercourse between 
mankind." 

We must remember, however, that tact and dis- 
crimination in using words can not be attained un- 
less we thoroughly and sympathetically study some 
— the more the better — of the masterpieces of Eng- 
lish literature. Nothing can take the place of an 
intimate acquaintance with the artistic diction of 
classic English. 

Yet the following studies in words will doubtless 
assist the learner in acquiring the ability to use 
English words with propriety and precision. 

Above, Foregoing. — Careful writers do not use 
above as an adjective or as a noun. It is better 
to say, the aforesaid, or foregoing, or preceding ex- 
planation, than the above explanation. The use of 
such locutions as above mentioned and above re- 
ferred to has the sanction of the best writers. 

Another unwarranted use of above is to make it 
serve for more than; as, "above a hundred," "above 

(246) 



USE OF WORDS 247 

a mile." The giant was not above {more than) six 
and a half feet tall. 

Accept, Accept of. — There is no reason what- 
ever for inserting of after accept. One accepts an 
offer, but does not accept of an offer. 

Administer, Strike. — Medicine, governments, 
and affairs of state generally, are administered; a 
blow is struck. A New York paper reported that 
" Carson died from a blow administered by a police- 
man." 

Aggravate, Irritate. — Scholarly persons do not 
use aggravate when they mean irritate, annoy, or 
provoke. By her continual fault-finding the teacher 
aggravated (say irritated) her pupils. He is easily 
aggravated (say provoked). To aggravate means to 
intensify, to heighten, or to make worse, that which 
is already bad, painful, or undesirable. It is cor- 
rectly used in the following sentences: The con- 
tinuous din and roar of the street aggravates the 
patient's suffering. By adding falsehood to theft 
the boy aggravated his guilt. 

Agree, Admit. — To use agree in the sense of 
admit is a crude impropriety. I admit (not agree) 
that he has a better claim to it than I. 

Advent, Arrival. — To use advent when the fa- 
miliar word arrival will express the idea intended, 
is, to say the least, pedantic. To say, We shall not 
go to the mountains until the advent of our friends 
from the South, sounds stilted. We speak of the 
advent of what is sacred, stately, or very important. 



248 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Agriculturist, Conversationist. — Agriculturist 
and conversationist are much to be preferred to ag- 
riculturalist and conversationalist respectively. 

All, All of. — Instead of "Tom took all of them" 
say, "Tom took them all." Not "I like all of them," 
but "I like them all." 

It is far better to say, "The agent sold books over 
all the state" than "The agent sold books all over 
the State." 

Act, Action. — Both these words contain the idea 
of doing; but action contains the additional notion of 
continuity. This is aptly brought out in the phrase 
"an action at law." An act is a distinct, and a some- 
what important doing. Action is applied to what 
is more general and continuous. We say "a kind 
act" "a brave act." On the other hand, "Mr. Roose- 
velt is a man of action;" "Life is action." Act is 
synonymous with deed; action, with motion. 

Allude, Refer. — Few words are so often sinned 
against as useful old allude. It is not a synonym 
of mention or refer. Allude means "to indicate 
jocosely, to hint at playfully, ... in a slight 
passing manner." We refer to a thing when we 
mention it more directly, openly. Refer is seldom, 
if ever, used for allude, but allude for refer. 

Alone, Only. — The following nice discrimination 
betweeen the use of these two words is made by 
Dr. Hugh Blair: 

Only imports that there is no other of the same 
kind ; alone imports being accompanied by no other. 



USE OF WORDS 249 

An only child is one which has neither brother nor 
sister; a child alone is one which is left by itself. 
There is a difference, therefore, in precise language 
betwixt these two phrases, "Virtue only makes us 
happy," and "Virtue alone makes us happy." Vir- 
tue only makes us happy, imports that nothing else 
can do it ; virtue alone makes us happy, imports that 
virtue, by itself, or unaccompanied with other ad- 
vantages, is sufficient to do it. 

Allow, Permit. — "To alloiu consents tacitly; to 
permit consents formally." An action for which 
permission need not be asked is allowed; to permit 
implies the granting of a request. i( Permit is posi- 
tive; it signifies to grant leave." Examples: "I 
have obtained permission to make these conversa- 
tions public." "In America every one is allowed to 
follow the dictates of his own conscience." 

Affect, Effect. — To act upon a thing in such a 
way as to modify it is to affect it; as, "Our mental 
states are affected by our sensible surroundings." 
To effect is. to bring to pass ; to execute ; to accom- 
plish; to achieve; as, "They sailed away without 
effecting their purpose." Effect, as a noun, denotes 
the result of action; as, "What was the effect of his 
fiery appeal?" 

Alternative, Course. — Alternative is a choice 
between only two courses; as, "Heretics were offered 
the alternative of turning or burning." We were 
given the choice of three or more courses (not al- 
ternatives). 



250 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Amateur, Novice. — Amateur is not infrequently 
made to do duty for novice. A person who practices 
an art, not as a profession or as a means of obtain- 
ing a livelihood, but solely for the love of it, is an 
amateur. A novice is a beginner in any pursuit — 
one still in the rudiments. An amateur may be a 
master in his art; a novice lacks the experience es- 
sential to mastery. 

Ancient, Antique, Antiquated, Obsolete. — An- 
cient is old, as opposed to modern. Homer and Plato 
were ancient authors; Babylon was an ancient city. 
What is antique is in the style of the ancients. An 
antique temple may be modern, but is fashioned after 
an ancient model or style of architecture. We speak 
of an antique coin, or cup, or costume; and of an- 
cient laws and customs. That which by lapse of 
time has passed out of fashion or use, is antiquated. 
The reaping machines of fifty years ago have become 
antiquated. Obsolete expresses that of which the 
life or force has fallen into disuse. It is applied to 
words, documents, customs, and observances, but 
never to persons, and rarely to material things. 

Anticipate, Expect. — Anticipate means "to take 
beforehand," to go before so as to preclude another; 
to get the start of or to get ahead of; to possess, or 
enjoy, or suffer in expectation; to forsee, or to fore- 
taste. In the following sentence expect should take 
the place of anticipate : Because of ideal weather con- 
ditions, we anticipate excellent crops. The follow- 
ing sentences serve to indicate the correct use of 



USE OF WORDS 251 

anticipate: He would probably have died by the 
hand of the executioner, if the executioner had not 
been anticipated by the populace. — Macaulay. We 
anticipate what a person is going to say by saying 
it before him. — Crabb. In several respects the 
Mosaic law is declared to have anticipated modern 
science by several thousand years. — Hosmer. I 
shall, indeed, anticipate their fury by falling into a 
mad passion myself. — Goldsmith. 

Anxious, Desirous. — These words are not syn- 
onymous terms. Anxious denotes mental distress, 
great uneasiness of mind; as, "Mr. and Mrs. Brown 
were anxious in regard to the safety of their son 
who had been a passenger on the ill-fated steamer." 
"She is anxious to visit Europe" should be "She is 
desirous of visiting Europe." 

Anyhow, At any rate. — In dignified discourse 
the colloquialism anyhow should be displaced by such 
locutions as at any rate, in any event, be that as it 
may, or the like. There is no objection to the use of 
anyhoiv in conversation. 

Apt, Liable, Likely. — Apt is a useful little word 
which depends for correct usage on taste and dis- 
crimination. It is often pressed into service where 
liable or likely should do the work. Apt is cor- 
rectly used in the sense of qualified, skillful, or nat- 
urally fitted; as, "an apt teacher," an "apt debater," 
"an apt solicitor." The form may be varied thus: 
"He has aptitude for teaching, for debating, and so 
forth. A letter properly addressed is likely (not 



252 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

apt) to be delivered. Unless you are vigilant, you 
are liable (not apt) to get into trouble. 

As if, As though. — Reputable writers and speak- 
ers prefer the locution as if to as though. Thus: 
The horse looks as if (not as though) he had never 
been groomed. The oarsmen row as if they were 
tired. 

This preference is not an arbitrary one. Each of 
such sentences involves an elliptical clause, which is 
brought to light by an attempt to analyze the sen- 
tence. The first of the foregoing examples is equiva- 
lent to "The horse looks as he would look if he 
had never been groomed." Now substitute though 
for if and the result is nonsense. 

Answer, Reply.— An answer is given to a ques- 
tion; a reply is made to an objection, an accusation, 
or a charge. An ansiver simply informs, while a 
reply is intended to confute or disprove. Witnesses 
ansiver the questions put to them in court; as, in 
such a case, it is information alone that is sought. 
But the counsel for the defendant replies to the ar- 
guments used by the counsel for the plaintiff. It is 
better, as a rule, to talk of ansivering a friend's let- 
ter than of replying to it. 

Apparent, Obvious. — These are not always syn- 
onymous. That which is obvious is evident, certain, 
real. What is apparent may be just the reverse of 
real; as, A paradox is an apparent contradiction 
of terms. The Duke of York is the heir apparent 
to the English throne. 



USE OF WORDS 253 

Abridge, Abbreviate. — To abridge is to shorten 
by condensing or compressing; to abbreviate is to 
shorten by cutting off, or curtailing. Written words 
are abbreviated by clipping them; voluminous treat- 
ises are abridged by reducing the same matter to 
smaller compass ; o'er for over; ne'er for never; cant 
for can not, and so on, are not abbreviated forms of 
their originals, but contracted forms. 

Access, Accession. — We have access to a library, 
to a city directory, to a magistrate. The college fac- 
ulty has received a valuable accession in the person 
of Professor B., just elected to the chair of mathe- 
matics. The library has received a large accession 
of books. The Sultan celebrated his accession to the 
throne. 

Study the etymology of these words. Study 
accede. 

At last, At length. — What is done at last is 
brought about after many delays, difficulties, or ac- 
cidents ; i. e., it is accomplished in spite of these. 

What is done at length is brought about after a 
long continuance of time. The great Salt Lake 
temple was forty years in building; it was at length 
completed. After surmounting many apparently in- 
superable obstacles, the first transcontinental rail- 
way was at last finished. What takes a long time 
to be done, is accomplished at length; what is done 
in the face of difficulties is accomplished at last. 

Active, Agile, Alert, Lively. — One who is given 
to action, or is fond of action, is active. "An active 



254 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

demand for wheat" is a current phrase of the busi- 
ness world. One who is nimble or quick in move- 
ment is agile. One who is watchful and ready to 
act is alert. "On the alert"= on the lookout. One 
who is full of life, animated, is lively. We speak 
of "a lively child," "a lively faith," "a lively in- 
terest." 

Acceptance, Acceptation. — Acceptance ex- 
presses the receiving of something; as, His accept- 
ance of the gift was graceful. Acceptation expresses 
the meaning with which a word or phrase is under- 
stood, or generally received; as, We must use the 
word in its usual acceptation. 

Acquire, Obtain. — What is acquired is gotten by 
one's own efforts; what is obtained may be gotten 
by the efforts of others. What one acquires comes 
gradually to him in consequence of the regular ex- 
ercise of his abilities. Hence, knowledge, honor, 
reputation are acquired. One obtains what he in- 
herits. A fortune that is amassed as the result of 
many years of labor is acquired. "What is acquired 
is solid, and produces lasting benefit; what is ob- 
tained may often be injurious to one's health, one's 
interest, or one's morals." 

Accede, Assent, Acquiesce. — We accede to an- 
other's wish, or practical proposal ; we assent to the 
truth of a proposition, to the objective point of an 
argument. Acquiesce is closely akin to assent, but 
is less positive and active. It means to concur less 



USE OF WORDS 255 

heartily than is implied in assent. It means hardly 
more than to forbear opposition. 

We can not assent to a proposition without some 
intelligent apprehension of it. — Newman. 

Take the place and attitude that belong to you and 
all men acquiesce. — Emerson. 

"The proprietors acceded to the request of their 
employees." 

Audience, Lookers-on. — A company of persons 
assembled to see, or look at, something, is not an 
audience. Persons that come together to hear or 
listen to something are collectively an audience, and 
the place where they meet is an auditorium. It is 
absurd, then, to speak of an audience at a game of 
ball or at a boat-race. Persons at such places are 
lookers-on or spectators. 

Authoress, Poetess. — Authoress and poetess, the 
feminine forms of author and poet respectively, are 
terms that seldom, if ever, need to be used. A poet 
is one who writes poetry, whether a man or a woman. 
An author is a person who writes prose or poetry, 
not a man who writes, etc. Apropos of the words 
poet and author, Mr. Gould says : "Nothing in either 
word indicates sex; and everybody knows that the 
functions of both poets and authors are common to 
both sexes. Hence, authoress and poetess are su- 
perfluous. And they are superfluous, also, in an- 
other respect — that they are very rarely used; 
indeed, they hardly can be used independently of 
the name of the writer, as Mrs. or Miss, or a female 

17 



256 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Christian name. They are, besides, philological ab- 
surdities, because they are fabricated on the false 
assumption that their primaries indicate men. They 
are, moreover, liable to the charge of affectation 
and prettiness, to say nothing of pedantic pretension 
to accuracy. 

"If the ess is to be permitted, there is no reason 
for excluding it from any noun that indicates a 
person ; and the next edition of our dictionaries may 
be made complete by the addition of writress, officer- 
ess, manageress, superintendentess, secretaryess, 
treasureress, walkeress, talkeress, and so on to the 
end of the vocabulary.' ' 

Mrs. Browning, as well as Mr. Browning, was a 
poet. 

Avocation, Vocation. — A person's vocation is 
his regular occupation, business, or profession; that 
which he does for gain, or by which he earns a live- 
lihood. His avocation is what he occasionally en- 
gages in for pastime, pleasure, or recreation. Mr. 
Grover Cleveland's vocation is the profession of law; 
his avocations are fishing, writing for the maga- 
zines, and delivering lectures to college classes and 
learned societies. Some one has said that every one 
should have both a vocation and an avocation. 

Avoid, Prevent. — Avoid is not synonymous with 
prevent or hinder. In the sentence, "There shall be 
no failure in our school work the coming year if I 
can avoid it," avoid should yield its place to prevent. 
Avoid properly means to shun, to keep away from; 



USE OF WORDS 257 

as, I shall avoid the use of all words that savor of 
vulgarity. 

Awful, Very.- — Perhaps no word is more gen- 
erally abused than awful. It is made to do service 
for all sorts of intensive adjectives and adverbs, by 
those whose vocabulary is smallest. Such terms as 
very, unusually, exceptionally, exceedingly, intensely, 
great, grand, etc., are put aside for the ubiquitous 
awful. Thus: We had an awfully {very) pleasant 
time. Harry is an awful {unusually) bright stu- 
dent. He is an awfully {very, or exceptionally) 
strict teacher. Isn't it an awfully {very) sweet 
baby? Vulgarisms so gross are never found in the 
diction of cultivated persons. 

Awful is a genuine English word, and a very use- 
ful one, too. It is thus defined by Webster: "Op- 
pressing with fear or horror; appalling, frightful." 
Further: "Fitted to inspire with reverential fear; 
profoundly impressive." A violent storm at sea, es- 
pecially after night, is an awful phenomenon. The 
scene on and around Mt. Sinai, at the giving of the 
divine law, as described in the book of Exodus, was 
an awful one. 

Bad, Badly. — Badly is often inelegantly used for 
bad; as, "The patient looks badly," "I feel badly." 
It is also inaptly used for very much; as, "He has 
wanted to see you badly." "We shall miss father 
badly." 

Bad, Severe. — To speak of a slight cold or a 
severe cold is good English • but there is little sense 



258 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

in saying bad cold, as all colds are bad. They 
differ only in severity. 

Belong. — No one can belong to a Browning So- 
ciety, to a women's club, to a secret order, or to 
any other organized body. Mr. Jones is a member 
of the Iroquois Club ; Mrs. Jones is a member of the 
Ladies' Improvement Society. 

Better, More than.— Better is often inelegantly 
used with the meaning of more; as, "It is better than 
a year since Uncle Joe was here." 

Black, Blacken. — One can blacken another's 
name or reputation, but not his boots or his eyes. 
One blackens by the use of slander, calumny, and 
so forth, but blacks by using one's fist or shoe-brush. 

Bough, Branch. — A branch is one of the arms 
of a tree regarded simply in its ramifications; a 
bough is a branch thought of as invested with leaves, 
or with leaves and blossoms, or with leaves and 
fruit. When we think of the arms of a tree as con- 
stituent parts of a tree, we properly speak of them 
as branches; when we are thinking of them as lux- 
uriant with leaves, etc., we call them boughs. The 
bough is sometimes severed from the tree and used 
for festive decoration. The fruitful bough, rich with 
the foliage of summer and the fruit of autumn, be- 
comes in winter a leafless branch. 

"Joseph is a fruitful bough." Gen. 49 : 22. 

Bravery, Courage, Fortitude. — Bravery is more 
a matter of temper, of instinct, than of reason or 
insight. Courage is the result of reflection and con- 



USE OF WORDS 259 

science. There is little merit in being brave; there 
is much in being courageous. Courage is always 
cool and collected, and moves in the light. Bravery 
is liable to degenerate into mere temerity. Fortitude 
is resolute endurance; bearing pain or adversity 
without complaining, depression, or despondency. 
"It takes courage to storm a battery, fortitude to 
stand still under an enemy's fire." Jesus bore His 
awful sufferings with the utmost fortitude. 

Bound, Determined. — The use of bound in the 
sense of determined, resolved, doomed, etc., is an 
offense against purity of diction. He is determined 
(not bound) to win, He is certain (not bound) to 
be elected, He is doomed (not bound) to fail. The 
proper use of bound is so obvious that it needs no 
explanation. 

Barbarous, Barbaric. — Barbarous refers to the 
cruelty, the inhumanity, the brutality, the grossness 
of uncivilized peoples. BarbaiHc refers to the rude 
splendor, the crude taste, the uncultured display of 
wealth, peculiar to a barbarous people. We speak 
of barbarous practices, conduct, etc.; but of bar- 
baric splendor, wealth, pomp, and so on. 

Bestow, Confer. — Both these verbs express the 
idea of giving. Bestow is said of things given be- 
tween persons in private life ; confer, of things given 
from persons in authority to those below them in 
rank. Princes confer honors, privileges, dignities. 
One neighbor bestows favors upon another. We 
bestow charity, kindness, favors, pains. 



260 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

"The whole affair is so petty that I shall not 
bestow another thought upon the subject. 

"Henry VIII conferred upon Wolsey the highest 
honors." 

Bring, Fetch. — Bring is only to convey to; as, 
"The farmer brings potatoes to market." Fetch is 
to go and bring. One who brings passes over the 
ground in only one direction ; one who fetches passes 
over the ground in both directions; i. e., makes a 
"round trip," so to speak. The phrase "Go and 
bring" is equivalent to fetch. 

Calculate, Intend. — Calculate in the sense of 
expect, purpose, intend, or of suppose, think, etc., 
is decidedly vulgar. So far as I have been able to 
observe, every one who has compiled a treatise on 
grammar or on rhetoric, has condemned the use of 
calculated in the sense of fitted, suited, adapted. 
It is certain, however, that in this case the critics 
are wrong and the people are right. Our only cri- 
terion for determining the genuineness of a word 
used in a given sense, is good usage. No higher au- 
thority can be adduced than that of the "Century 
Dictionary," "Webster's International Dictionary," 
Goldsmith, Hawthorne, and Macaulay . Here are a 
few examples : "This letter was admirably calculated 
to work on those to whom it was addressed." — Ma- 
caulay. "The minister, on the other hand, had 
never gone through an experience calculated to lead 
him beyond the scope of generally-received laws." — 
Hawthorne. In the matter of diction the verdict of 



USE OF WORDS 261 

either Macaulay or Hawthorne has more weight with 
me than have ail the purists. We need to guard, 
however, against making a hobby of any word. 

Capable, Susceptible. — Capable has an active, 
susceptible a passive, signification. The former is 
often wrongly made to do duty for the latter. Ex- 
amples: They must be made of a metal susceptible 
(not capable) of being polished. We solicit for the 
Dispatch only such articles as are susceptible (not 
capable) of pictorial illustration. Note Kant's 
happy use of susceptible in the following : "The ob- 
ject of education is to develop in each individual all 
the perfection of which he is susceptible/' 

Character, Reputation. — Character is not a syn- 
onym of reputation. "Character is the sum of in- 
dividual qualities." It is the sunlight of the soul that 
may penetrate the outer world, and may not. Or, it 
may be likened to a candle under a bushel. Reputa- 
tion is what is generally thought of the character 
judged by outward and visible signs.— R. H. Bell. 

Claim, Assert. — A moment's thought will con- 
vince us that claim should not be used instead .of 
assert, affirm, or allege. "I claim that this is so 
or not so," as the case may be, is clearly an in- 
correct use of the word. The word does not express 
the intended meaning, while there are several words 
that do. "A thing claimed is a thing which may be 
possessed." He- asserts- (not claims) that the teacher 
was in error. 



262 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Clever, Good-natured. — Even clever persons 
sometimes use clever interchangeably with kind, 
well-disposed, or good-natured. Its true meaning 
is skillful, able, bright. Examples of its proper use : 
Mr. W. J. Bryan is a clever orator. Paul Revere 
was a clever horseman. Most American soldiers 
are clever marksmen. Practically every time one 
is tempted to use the much-abused smart, one will 
do well to inhibit the impulse, and instead say clever. 

Condign, Severe. — So often one hears the lo- 
cution condign punishment when severe punishment 
is meant. Condign means suitable, merited, de- 
served. Hence condign punishment is deserved pun- 
ishment. Condign praise is merited praise. 

Condone, Atone for. — Be careful not to say con- 
done when you mean compensate or atone for. Con- 
done means to pardon or to forgive; as, "His friends 
gladly condone his youthful errors." 

Congregate Together. — In the phrase congre- 
gate together, together is redundant, hence should 
be expunged. Congregate alone means come to- 
gether, assemble. 

fc Consider, Think. — Consider is very often made 
to do service outside its proper sphere. It is not 
synonymous with think and regard, as it is made 
to appear in these sentences: I consider (think) 
him the ablest living orator, He considers (thinks) 
it his duty to advise me, Lincoln is considered (re- 
garded, or looked upon) as having been the greatest 
publicist of the nineteenth century. Consider means 



USE OF WORDS 263 

to reflect, to meditate, to weigh in the mind. Thus : 
I shall take time to consider your proposition be- 
fore expressing an opinion in regard to it. 

Covetous, Avaricious, Parsimonious. — An in- 
ordinate desire for wealth, by whatever means it 
may be acquired, is avarice; the illicit desire to ap- 
propriate the wealth of others is covetousness. "The 
avaricious are eager to get, in order to heap up; 
they can not bear to part with their wealth; the 
covetous are eager to obtain money, but not so 
desirous to retain it." A covetous man may even 
be a spendthrift. The avaricious spend as little as 
possible. The parsimonious man is frugal to excess. 

Contemptible, Contemptuous. — Contemptible is 
not a synonym of contemptuous. The former means 
deserving contempt, and is synonymous with despic- 
able, though not so strong; the latter means express- 
ing or manifesting contempt. We say properly: "A 
contemptible coward," "A contemptible sneak," but, 
"A contemptuous opinion," "A contemptuous look," 
"A contemptuous mien." The student has perhaps 
heard the old story of Dr. Parr's contemptuous re- 
tort. A man once said to him : "Sir, I have a con- 
temptible opinion of you." "That does not surprise 
me," returned the doctor, "all your opinions are 
contemptible." 

Credible, Creditable. — Creditable and credible 
have nothing in common except a few elementary 
sounds. The former signifies meritorious, worthy 
of approbation ; the latter, worthy of belief, or that 



264 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

may be believed. Thus: He passed his examina- 
tion creditably. The junior students have done 
creditable work this semester. I am credibly in- 
formed that the late capitalist, Mr. Blank, be- 
queathed his entire estate to eleemosynary institu- 
tions. 

Continual, Continuous, Perpetual. — What is 
continual recurs often; what is continuous goes on 
without break or interruption. Perpetual means the 
same as continuous with the additional idea of 
never stopping; as, The planets revolve perpetually. 
The tides rise and ebb perpetually. If it rained at 
intervals during the whole of yesterday, we say, 
"It rained continually yesterday." If the downpour 
was unbroken, we say, "It rained continuously yes- 
terday." "Yet ... I will avenge her, lest by 
her continual coming she weary me." Luke 18: 5. 
"Carlyle's 'Frederick the Great' is rather a bundle of 
lively episodes than a continuous narrative." 

Ceremonial, Ceremonious. — These words were 
formerly the same in meaning. Ceremonial now 
means pertaining to public ceremony, or forms of 
public worship; ritualistic. As a noun it means 
the system of rules and rites that characterize public 
worship ; as, The ceremonial of the Anglican Church 
is more complex than that of any other Protestant 
church. Ceremonious refers to the forms of social 
demeanor, or etiquette. A ceremonious person is 
one who is over-exact, punctilious, in the forms of 



USE OF WORDS 265 

social behavior. "Too ceremonious in testifying their 
allegiance." — Raleigh. 

Chasteness, Chastity. — Chasteness is freedom 
from mere gaudiness and affectation in oral or writ- 
ten speech, and freedom from what is meretricious 
in art. "His diction [Irving's] is distinguished for 
its harmony and chasteness.' 1 The more common 
word, chastity, signifies sexual purity; moral clean- 
ness; continence. "The most beautiful of all the 
virtues — chastity." 

Commence, Begin. — Commence is of classical 
derivation ; begin is pure Saxon. Being the simpler 
and stronger, begin is decidedly preferable. For 
variety's sake, commence may be used occasionally 
in referring to actions subject to the human will ; 
but in referring to actions or movements beyond the 
sphere of human volition, we must invariably use 
begin; as, Summer begins in June. Next August 
will begin on a Thursday. 

Custom, Habit. — u Custom denotes the frequent 
repetition of the same act, and may be used of a 
number of persons taken together. Habit is the ef- 
fect of custom in a person. Custom is voluntary; 
habit is involuntary, often uncontrollable, some- 
times unconscious. " 

Crime, Sin, Vice. — Crime implies primarily an 
infraction of civil law ; sin of divine law. Vice 
is an offense against morality. Sin has reference 
to the relation between God and man; vice refers 



266 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

to the relation between man and man. An act is 
sinful because it is contrary to the law of God; it 
is vicious because it is injurious to the individual 
subject and to society. A vicious act is necessarily 
a sinful act. With very few exceptions criminal acts 
are likewise sinful. When a civil statute is in con- 
flict with the divine law, the true Christian must 
break the civil statute in order that he may not break 
the divine law and thus commit sin. He then com- 
mits a crime in the eyes of the civil authorities, but 
he commits no sin; in fact he committed the crime 
that he might not sin. A crime committed from any 
other motive is sin. The use of narcotics, morphine, 
alcoholics, as well as gambling, and so forth, is a 
vice. 

Conquer, Vanquish, Subdue, Overcome. — Per- 
sons and things are conquered, subdued, or over- 
come; but persons only are vanquished. To conquer 
means distinctively to gain control or possession of. 
Prisoners of war are conquered but not necessarily 
subdued. A country may be conquered by sheer 
force but its people may not be subdued. To sub- 
due a people is to check or destroy all tendency to, 
or desire for, further resistance. Spain often con- 
quered colonists that she never succeeded in sub- 
duing. We speak of vanquishing a foe when we 
think of our compelling him to yield, to "give in." 
William the Norman succeeded in conquering the 
English after he had vanquished their leader, Har- 
old. It was twelve years after he had conquered 



USE OF WORDS 267 

the English before he succeeded in subduing them. 
How long it took the English to subdue the Boers 
after they had practically conquered them and van- 
quished a number of their leaders! The distinct 
idea of overcome is to get the mastery of. What 
we overcome we control instead of its controlling 
us. Evil tendencies of the heart and flesh may be 
overcome long before they are subdued. We get the 
mastery over them and hold them in subjection, 
while they still clamor for indulgence. Only death 
can subdue some of them. Lusts that have been 
starved out of existence are not only overcome but 
subdued. 

Dangerous. — A hungry wolf, an angry bear, or a 
malignant disease may be dangerous; but to say 
that a sick person is dangerous is decidedly absurd. 
A person may be dangerously ill, or he may be in 
danger, but a sick man can not, in the very nature 
of the case, be dangerous. 

Demean, Disgrace. — To demean one's self is not 
to lower, to debase, or to disgrace one's self, as 
many think. To say, "He demeaned himself like a 
gentleman," is as good English as to say, "He be- 
haved like a gentleman." Hence, a person may de- 
mean himself either creditably or disgracefully. 

Disability, Inability. — Disability is lack of tech- 
nical, legal, or conventional power to act. A minor 
can not become a party to a contract because of a 
legal disability under which he labors. Because 
of some personal relation which a judge sustains to- 



268 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

ward a matter to be adjudicated, he is legally dis- 
qualified to act in his official capacity during such 
adjudication. He is technically disabled. Inability 
implies a lack of capability; disability does not imply 
such lack, but a lack of some formal qualification. 

Distinguish, Discriminate. — We distinguish 
with the eye, the sense of vision; we discriminate, 
with the judgment or understanding. We distin- 
guish when we point out broad, obvious differences ; 
we discriminate when we point out minute, nice, 
delicate differences. We distinguish for practical 
purposes ; we discriminate not only for practical, but 
for speculative, purposes. We distinguish things; 
we discriminate ideas and principles. Hence a mind 
that detects delicate shades of unlikeness is a dis- 
criminating mind. It would be difficult to dis- 
criminate between a discriminating mind and a 
subtile mind. 

Defend, Protect. — To defend is an active, to 
protect is a passive term. "We defend those who are 
attacked; we protect those who are liable to be at- 
tacked. " Swords and muskets are arms of defense; 
helmets and shields are means of protection. Walls 
and fortifications are built for purposes of protec- 
tion. A garrison fires upon the enemy in order to 
defend the town. 

Discretion, Prudence. — By prudence we fore- 
see probabilities, and act accordingly. Prudence 
reads the future ; discretion judges the present. The 
discreet man uses most wisely the tangible realities 



USE OF WORDS 269 

with which he has to do now; the prudent man pre- 
pares for what is coming. To act with decorum on 
all occasions evinces discretion; to successfully meet 
probable contingencies evinces prudence. A dis- 
creet person does what is most fitting, most seemly. 
A prudent man is never taken off guard — never 
found napping. "A prudent man forseeth the evil, 
and hideth himself. " Prov. 27: 12. "A good man 
showeth favor, and lendeth: he will guide his af- 
fairs with discretion." Ps. 112 : 5. 

Deadly, Deathly, Mortal. — Deadly is applied 
to that which produces death; deathly, to what re- 
sembles death; mortal, to what terminates in, or is 
subject to, death. There may be remedies to coun- 
teract what is deadly. What is mortal can not be 
cured. We say, "a deadly poison," "a mortal 
wound," " A deathly pallor came over the patient's 
face." I may add that what is fatal results irre- 
trievably in death ; as, a fatal mistake, a fatal step, 
a fatal fall. 

Decided, Decisive. — Webster discriminates these 
words thus: "We call a thing decisive when it has 
the power of deciding; as, a decisive battle; we speak 
of it as decided when it is so fully settled as to leave 
no room for doubt; as, a decided preference, a de- 
cided aversion. Hence a decided victory is one about 
which there is no question; a decisive victory is one 
which ends the contest. Decisive is applied only to 
things; as, a decisive sentence, a decisive decree, a 



270 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

decisive judgment. Decided is applied equally to 
persons and things/' 

Disbelief, Unbelief. — The mere absence of be- 
lief is unbelief; an unwillingness or refusal to believe 
is disbelief. I express my unbelief in what I am will- 
ing to believe as soon as I am convinced that it is 
true. I express my disbelief in what I am persuaded 
is false. I disbelieve the statement of a perjured 
man. "Unbelief is open to conviction; disbelief is 
already convinced of the falseness of what it does 
not believe." Christians disbelieve the claims of 
Mohammed. 

Deceit, Deception. — The individual instances or 
acts of one who deceives are deceptions. Hence we 
speak of an "act of deception." Deceit is used more 
in reference to the conscious habit of deceiving, or 
the disposition to deceive. We say of one so dis- 
posed that he is deceitful. Deception is used more in 
respect of the one deceived; deceit with regard to 
the deceiver. Deception is therefore applicable to 
cases in which the guilt of deceit has no part; as, 
an optical deception. Deceit always implies inten- 
tion. 

Deity, Divinity. — Deity regards God as an agent 
or person ; divinity signifies the essence or nature of 
God. Divinity is an attribute of Deity, or of God. 
When we speak of the divinity of Christ, we have 
regard to His nature, meaning that He was of the 
essence of God. Hence we speak of the attributes 
of the Deity, not of the Divinity. 



USE OF WORDS 271 

Defective, Faulty. — What is lacking in some 
respect is defective; what has something that it 
should not have is faulty. A defect must be sup- 
plied; a fault must be corrected. The absence of 
something right is a defect; the presence of some- 
thing wrong is a fault. What is imperfectly done 
is defective; what is bunglingly done is faulty. A 
blemish may be neither a defect nor a fault, but 
merely an accidental mark that renders the object 
less sightly than it would otherwise be. It is always 
on the surface. It spoils the appearance — the looks 
—of that on which it is found. A flaw is something 
unsound in what is otherwise genuine. A flaw de- 
tracts from the value— or at least from the commer- 
cial value — of a thing. A blind eye in a horse is 
primarily a flaiv; it makes the horse less salable. In 
so far as it impairs the "looks" of the horse, it is 
a blemish. In so far as it impairs his normal vision, 
it is a defect. Metaphorically we speak of a flaw in 
a document; so of "a flaw in an indictment." 

Difficulty, Obstacle. — A difficulty perplexes, an 
obstacle deters, or retards us. Difficulties commonly 
arise out of the inherent nature and character of 
the matter in hand ; obstacles arise from extraneous 
causes. When leaving Egypt, the Hebrews regarded 
the Red Sea as an insuperable obstacle. The scar- 
city of water in the desert through which they 
marched was one of the many difficulties they met. 
Obstacles are either removed or surmounted; dif- 

18 



272 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

ficulties are met and solved, or disposed of by skill, 
patience, and perseverance. 

Discern, Perceive. — To perceive is that simple 
act of the eye by which a more or less distant ob- 
ject is brought to make an impression on the mind; 
to discern expresses that act of the eye by virtue of 
which one is enabled to single out a particular ob- 
ject from among many others and consider it apart 
from the rest. We perceive trees or houses or per- 
sons at a distance; we discern an apple tree among 
many other sorts of fruit trees. "Perceiving has 
reference to objects of the same sort; discerning, 
to one among many of a different sort from itself. 
The same distinction holds good in the abstract sense 
of the two words." After some reflection we are 
able to see the truth of a proposition. A discrim- 
inating mind can discern truth though it be mixed 
with error. It requires a discerning mind to select 
the wheat from the chaff of discourse — to pounce 
upon what is vital. 

The word of God is quick, and powerful, . . . 
and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the 
heart. Heb. 4 : 12. 

Donate, Give. — Donate expresses to most persons 
a meritorious act; but the ivord is very offensive 
to the watch-dogs of the King's English. The crit- 
ics, to a man, tell us that we should say give, grant, 
bestow, or present, but never donate. But the people 
will and do use the proscribed word ; and I honestly 



USE OF WORDS 273 

fear that its use will survive its detractors. The 
noun donation, they tell us, passes muster. 

Due, Owing. — Of the words due and owing, the 
former is not seldom made to serve for the latter. 
Whatever ought to be paid as a debt is due; as, 
"My taxes are due." "Constant obedience is due 
to God." "It is due to the public that I should state 
the facts in the case as I know them." In such sen- 
tences as follow, owing is the proper word: The 
happy ending of the Civil War was, in no small 
degree, owing to the tact, the patience, the wisdom, 
and the sublime resolution of President Lincoln. 
Moody's success as an evangelist was owing to his 
unwavering confidence in the promises of God. 
Grant's rise to military primacy was owing to his 
iron tenacity. 

Elegant, Excellent. — It is almost cruel to in- 
flict on cultivated persons the pain of hearing such 
senseless locutions as "an- elegant sauce," "an ele- 
gant apple," "elegant coffee," "an elegant crop of 
potatoes," etc. Elegant is properly used thus : "The 
duchess was distinguished by her elegant manners," 
"No writer surpassed De Quincey in elegance of 
literary style." We can speak of "elegant furniture," 
an "elegant equipage," "elegant costume," or an 
"elegant tea-set." In some of these phrases the 
word splendid would serve equally well. Here are 
a few synonyms : graceful, refined, tasteful, polished, 
handsome, richly ornamented. 



274 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Deteriorate, Detract from. — An absurb use of 
deteriorate is to make it serve for lessen, to take 
from, or to detract from. Thus : Do not, by any 
means, think that I wish to deteriorate from (de- 
tract from) the man's reputation. It does not 
deteriorate (lessen) Washington's fame to aver that 
he could not have done for our country what Lincoln 
has done. The only meaning of deteriorate is to 
grow, or to become, worse; thus: Most edibles de- 
teriorate with time. The morals, as well as the 
manners, of the Romans deteriorated under the rule 
of the later Caesars. 

Dirt, Soil, Earth. — No impropriety of diction 
is more grating to the cultivated ear than is the 
use of dirt in the sense of earth, soil, loam, or gravel. 
Dirt denotes uncleanness, filth — nothing else. Lord 
Palmerston defines dirt as "matter in the wrong 
place." Loam or mud in the street is not dirt ; but if 
some of it adheres to my clothes or my person, that 
becomes dirt. Fruit- juice in a glass or dish is not 
dirt. It becomes dirt when spilled on the floor, on 
one's collar or shirt-front. It is pleasanter to think 
of one's dead friend as lying under six feet of earth, 
than under six feet of dirt. 

Enough, Sufficient. — We have enough when our 
desires are satisfied; we have sufficient when our 
needs are met. Some persons, though they have 
more than sufficient, never have enough. A man 
may have enough money for himself and his family, 
but not sufficient to help his indigent neighbor. 



USE OF WORDS 275 

There are youth who get enough knowledge and 
training long before they have sufficient. 

Enormity, Enormousness. — Enormousness qual- 
ifies a material object as being immense in magni- 
tude; as, the enormousness of our national wealth, 
the enormousness of our railway mileage. Enormity 
qualifies wrong-doing as being heinous, atrocious, 
monstrous ; as, the enormity of the crimes committed 
in the name of religion; the enormity of the out- 
rages committed by the victorious soldiers. 

Emigrant, Immigrant. — Emigrants are those 
who leave a country to find homes in another; im- 
migrants are those who come into a country with 
a view to settling there. 

Entire, Complete. — Whatever lacks nothing that 
it was intended to have, is entire; whatever lacks 
nothing it normally can have, is complete. An entire 
work on Roman history consists of a certain number 
of volumes; a complete history of Rome is an abso- 
lutely exhaustive history of Rome. "A complete 
work contains everything that can be said on the 
subject of which it treats." A history without maps 
is not complete; but if no leaves are missing it is 
entire. A complete victory lacks in no element of 
thoroughness. What is entire is an unbroken in- 
teger. 

Equanimity of Mind. — Equanimity alone means 
evenness of mind. Hence of mind immediately fol- 
lowing equanimity is superfluous. "He bore his 
misfortune with equanimity" expresses all that is 



276 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

intended without tacking on of mind. The word 
anxiety expresses a mental condition, and should 
never, therefore, be modified by of mind. 

Equivocal, Ambiguous.— A sentence that con- 
tains one general meaning, and yet contains a word 
or words which may be taken in two different senses, 
or phrases or clauses which may be regarded as qual- 
ifying either one of two or more terms of the sen- 
tence, is called an ambiguous sentence. A part of 
the meaning intended is doubtful, uncertain. A sen- 
tence is equivocal when, taken as a whole, it ex- 
presses each of two thoughts with equal clearness. 
What is ambiguous is a mere blunder of language; 
what is equivocal is generally intended to deceive, 
though it may sometimes result from inadvertence. 
The idea of misleading or deceiving is always im- 
plied by the verb equivocate. 

Exuberant, Luxuriant. — Luxuriant signifies a 
flourishing, unrestrained growth; while exuberant 
denotes a copious or even an excessive production. 
Luxuriant is always employed in a favorable sense. 
Exuberant sometimes denotes that kind of abun- 
dance which needs to be pruned down or restrained. 
A luxuriant imagination is an invaluable gift to the 
poet, but an exuberant imagination might run away 
with his reason. Exuberant joy or exuberant grief 
needs to be restrained. In this sense luxuriant is 
inadmissible. 

Feign, Pretend. — Both these words signify to 
mislead; to convey a false impression. Feigning 



USE OF WORDS 277 

commonly misleads the senses — the eye especially; 
pretense misleads the understanding. We feign by 
false appearances, by outward demeanor and con- 
duct. We feign only what pertains to ourselves. 
The object of feigning is to avoid the performance 
of a disagreeable duty or to gain an unearned good. 
Thus we may feign sickness, or friendship, or in- 
difference, or ignorance (specific), etc. "Ulysses 
feigned madness in order to escape going to the 
Trojan war." We pretend, not by conduct or man- 
ner, but by what we say. We seek to deceive the 
judgment by false assertions, by a misrepresenta- 
tion of facts. We may pretend in matters pertaining 
to others as well as in those pertaining to ourselves. 
Thus I may pretend to have been presented to the 
Pope or to a king, or to have completed a university 
course, or to be intimately acquainted with some 
famous man, and so on. The meaning of dis- 
semble is interesting, inasmuch as it is always the 
feigned concealment of what really exists in one's 
character or feeling. If one is jealous and pretends 
not to be, one dissembles. One feigns to be what one 
is not; one dissembles in order to appear not to be 
what one is. 

Foretell, Predict. — We foretell by calculation, 
or on the ground of experience and knowledge. 
Hence we fortell with some degree of certainty. 
Our predictions are based mostly on conjecture. 
Eclipses are foretold by astronomers; evil or good 
fortune is predicted by astrologers and gypsies. 



278 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

Predict is employed only of persons, while foretell 
is used also of impersonal indicators; as, The mer- 
cury (barometer) foretells rain. 

Study prognosticate, divine (verb). 

Forefathers, Ancestors. — Our forefathers in- 
cludes our parents ; our ancestors excludes them. It 
is said that ancestors is used in a sense to imply 
some dignity of birth. We are children of our 
forefathers; the posterity of our ancestors. 

Was Graduated. — Instead of putting it, I gradu- 
ated, He graduated, They graduated, we must now 
put it, I ivas graduated, He was graduated, They 
were graduated. 

Fix, Arrange. — No word is more commonly mis- 
used than is fix. It properly denotes the idea of fast- 
ening down, making secure by binding, making im- 
movable for more or less time. Thus: He fixed 
his eye on me, She sat fixed like a statue. But 
do not say, "He will fix the furniture for you," or 
"I shall fix the books on the library shelves." Ar- 
range is here the proper word. Fix should not be 
used for repair; as, Tell the servant to fix the 
fences. In the following sentences fix is a vulgar- 
ism: The sheriff will fix you, The lad got himself 
into a fix, I must fix up if I go with you. 

Female, Woman. — It is in bad taste to use the 
word female when ivoman is meant. Say, "Doubt- 
less a woman (not female) is a better teacher of 
children than a man (not male).' 9 Male or female 



USE OF WORDS 279 

should be used only when it is desired to point out 
sex. 

Gentleman, Lady. — The word lady or gentleman 
should not be used to designate sex. Such use is a 
breach of good taste, as well as of verbal propriety. 
In the following sentences gentleman or gentlemen 
should yield its place to man or men; and lady or 
ladies, to tvoman or women: Gentlemen should be 
as much interested in the growing of flowers as are 
ladies. "If we were gentlemen/' remarked one of 
the ladies, "we would all go to the front." In this 
country gentlemen are expected to conform to the 
same moral standards as are ladies. 

"In nine cases out of ten," says a writer in the 
Neiv York Sun, "the use of gentleman for man is a 
case of affectation founded neither in education nor 
politeness." 

Genius, Talent. — Genius denotes the highest or- 
der of human mentality. It is essentially original 
and independent in its operations. It is a strong 
inborn bent to some occupation in which the creative 
faculty, or the imagination in its highest manifesta- 
tions, is largely employed. Genius originates, cre- 
ates, and makes new combinations. Talent imitates 
faithfully; copies correctly; evolves, applies, and 
executes skillfully. By virtue of its inherent force, 
genius is measurably independent of rules; i. e., of 
their specific recognition. It recognizes and applies 
them intuitively, as it were. Talent is special capac- 
ity for learning rules, and power to employ them 



280 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

wisely. Not only the foremost poets, painters, com- 
posers, etc., but also the greatest warriors, diplo- 
mats, and inventors, are called geniuses. Historians, 
mathematicians, linguists, statesmen, and scientists, 
are usually persons of talent. 

Gain, Win. — Winning is a particular kind of gain- 
ing. By attention to business we may gain a for- 
tune; by chance, luck, or artifice we may win a 
fortune. Win generally implies competition; gain 
does not, as a rule. By our industry, faithfulness, 
and helpfulness we gain friends. We sometimes 
win friends without effort. 

Idle, Indolent.— An idle boy is not an altogether 
inactive boy, but one who occupies his time use- 
lessly, or with frivolities. An indolent boy is 
strongly averse to effort of any kind. The idle boy 
plays when he should work or apply himself to study. 
The indolent boy lounges about or sleeps when he 
should work or study. The idle boy lacks steadiness 
or purpose; the indolent lacks the disposition to 
exertion. Idleness is further used in the sense of 
forced inactivity ; as, Men unable to get employment 
are idle. "Why stand ye here all the day idle? 
They say unto him, Because no man hath hired us." 
Matt. 20 : 6, 7. Idle originally meant unprofitable ; 
as, "idle fields," that is, fields not under cultivation. 
Lazy usually expresses a slothful habit of body, to 
which physical effort is hateful. It is a stronger 
and more disparaging term than indolent. 



USE OF WORDS 281 

Inquiring, Inquisitive. — An inquiring mind is 
indispensable to successful research. An inquisitive 
temper is not an unmixed blessing. Inquisitive is 
of the same derivation as inquiring, but it has from 
usage an element of intrusiveness or prying. 

Liberty, Freedom. — Often used interchangeably, 
these words are distinct in some of their applica- 
tions. Liberty implies a reference to former re- 
straint or bondage ; freedom signifies the simple, un- 
repressed exercise of our powers. Liberty carries 
with it the idea of being no longer captive ; freedom, 
that of nothing obstructing the natural exercise of 
our powers. The slave, set at liberty, enjoys that 
freedom which his master has always enjoyed. 
Freedom sometimes means in an unrestrained man- 
ner ; as, "They played, worked, and studied with free- 
dom!' Here liberty would not be admissible. "The 
liberty of the press is our great security for freedom 
of thought." 

Marine, Maritime, Naval, Nautical. — The first 
two words both mean belonging to the sea, but un- 
der different aspects; marine, to the sea in its 
natural aspect or state; as, 7narine deposits, marine 
plants, animals, etc. ; maritime, to the sea as related 
to man, or as employed by man; as, a maritime 
people, or nation, maritime trade, maritime occu- 
pations. Naval expresses the idea of belonging to 
ships; as, a naval life, naval armament, the naval 
profession. That which pertains to the art of navi- 



282 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

gation is designated as nautical; as, nautical al- 
manac, nautical instrument, nautical skill. 

Intrude, Obtrude. — To go where one is not de- 
sired, or has not been invited to go, or has no right 
to go, is to intrude. To thrust one's self imperti- 
nently upon a company, or upon the attention of 
another, is to obtrude one's self. One who obtrudes 
is usually irrepressible in his remarks; one who 
intrudes may appear shy and taciturn. Obtrude 
is also used in an impersonal sense; as, Objects 
obtrude themselves upon our senses, whether we 
will or not. 

Motherly, Maternal. — This pair of words is 
formed from corresponding roots in Saxon and 
Latin; the Latin word maternal being the more 
polite and cold, the Saxon motherly the more hearty 
and cordial. The Latin word is used to express the 
office, the Saxon the manner and deportment. We 
speak of maternal duties, office, sphere, authority, 
and the like; of motherly care, tenderness, etc. A 
similar distinction holds between paternal and /a- 
therly, fraternal and brotherly. 

Obligation, Duty. — Duty is what is naturally due 
from one to another. No man can be exempt from 
duties. An obligation arises from circumstances. 
It is a species of duty. If I orally or in writing 
guarantee the payment of a sum of money, I con- 
tract an obligation. "An obligation is what we bind 
ourselves to do independently of our natural duties." 
What are due, each to the other, of husband and 



USE OF WORDS 283 

wife, are duties because naturally implied in the 
marriage state. 

Study obligatory, duteous, dutiful. 

Observance, Observation. — One meaning of the 
verb observe is to keep or obey strictly; the other 
meaning is to consider or notice with care. Hence 
observance, corresponding to the first meaning, sig- 
nifies the keeping or obeying of a rule or law, and 
thus fulfilling a civil, moral, or religious duty. We 
speak, therefore, of the observance of the Sabbath, 
of Lent, of rites, of Independence day. Observation, 
corresponding to the second meaning, signifies the 
noticing, the perceiving, or the cognizing of an ob- 
ject through the senses, most frequently through the 
eye. Observation is also used in the sense of remark. 
"The Pharisees were curious in external observ- 
ances; the astronomers are curious in celestial ob- 
servations."— Webster. 

Opposite, Contrary. — Things that are contrary 
exclude each the other; things that are opposite 
complete each the other. Opposite things, points, or 
ideas can never come in conflict with each other, as 
they are mathematically fixed. Things contrary often 
come into collision. Virtue is contrary to vice, since 
it is unlike vice in character, manifestation, motive, 
and practical eff ects. Virtue is opposite to vice, 
since, as a notion or concept, it stands over against 
vice, as the north pole stands over against the south 
pole. A thing or idea always implies its opposite. 
A thing or idea does not imply its contrary. "Op- 



284 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

posite is static in its character; contrary is dy- 
namic." Contraries quarrel when they meet; op- 
posites are mathematically barred from meeting, 
and hence are eternally at peace. 

Posture, Attitude. — Both words have regard to 
the visible disposition of the parts of the body. Post- 
ure relates to their position merely; attitude is pos- 
ture with expression added. Attitude has for its 
object the setting forth and exhibiting of some emo- 
tion or sentiment ; as, an attitude of wonder, of grief, 
of despair, of devotion, of admiration. Posture 
implies no expression. Hence we speak of a hori- 
zontal posture, an erect posture, a kneeling posture. 
We are always in some posture, but not always in 
an attitude. 

Pride, Vanity. — The proud man cherishes a feel- 
ing of self-sufficiency, self-satisfaction. Wrapped up 
in his own estimation, he is indifferent to the opin- 
ions of others. While overrating his own merit, the 
proud man underrates that of others. He arrogates 
to himself undue importance and worth. The vain 
man is greedy of admiration ; he is inordinately fond 
of praise — of praise which he knows he does not 
deserve. The proud man admires himself; the vain 
man courts the admiration of others. Pride is hate- 
ful; vanity is ridiculous and contemptible. There 
are persons too proud to stoop to anything so hollow 
as vanity. There is a species of pride of which we 
need not be ashamed — honest pride, honorable pride. 



USE OF WORDS 285 

Haughtiness is pride strikingly exhibited through 
one's bearing and manner. 

Present, Introduce. — Those who strain to be 
fine often improperly use present for introduce. "A 
person is presented at court, and on official occasions 
to our President; but persons who are unknown to 
each other are introduced by a common acquaintance. 
And in these introductions it is the younger that is 
introduced to the older; the lower to the higher in 
place or social position; the gentleman to the lady. 
A lady should say, as a rule, that Mr. Blank was in- 
troduced to her, not that she was introduced to Mr. 
Blank." 

Recollect, Remember. — When an idea of a past 
experience recurs to the mind spontaneously, or with 
little exertion on our part, it is remembered; when 
it recurs as the result of special exertion, of pur- 
posed effort, it is recollected. Hence I say properly, 
"I do not remember" and "I can not recollect." 

Remuneration, Compensation, Recompense. — 
A person is remunerated for his personal services 
done to the remunerator; he is compensated for 
losses incurred in behalf of the person making the 
compensation. Or one may, out of charity, give to 
a poor person, in compensation for a loss which he 
had unfortunately sustained. Hence we say, "What 
can compensate for the loss of honor?" A railway 
company compensates its patrons for any injury sus- 
tained by the latter in a railway accident. A per- 
son is recompensed for long, assiduous, and specially 



286 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

meritorious service. This sense of recompense is 
happily exemplified in the following scripture : "For 
thou shalt be recompensed at the resurrection of the 
just." Luke 14: 14. 

Safe, Secure. — One who is simply out of danger 
is safe; one who is removed beyond the reach of 
danger is secure. Safe has regard to the past and 
the present ; secure, to the future as well. Security 
further implies the absence of all fear of danger. 
Persons at sea are not safe during a storm; they 
are not secure from the dangers of the sea till they 
have reached the shore. It is the prerogative of a 
Christian to regard himself safe for time, and se- 
cure for eternity. So far as security is a feeling, or 
sense of safety, it may itself become a danger; as, 
While they slept secure, the enemy attacked the 
camp. We also speak of a dangerous individual 
being secure when he is. imprisoned. 

"No man can rationally account himself secure un- 
less he could command all the chances of the world/' 

Seem, Appear. — What seems is in the mind; what 
appears is external. Things appear as they present 
themselves to the eye; they seem as they are repre- 
sented to the mind. Things appear good or bad, 
as far as we can judge by our senses. Things seem 
right or wrong as we determine by reflection, per- 
ception, and sensation. 

Silent, Reticent, Taciturn. — To be silent is 
simply to refrain from speaking. One is reticent 
when he is silent about a particular thing, or keeps 



USE OF WORDS 287 

back something that others have a right to know. 
A taciturn person is one whose temperament dis- 
poses him to silence. Taciturnity is a matter of habit 
and of temper. Taciturn is the antithesis of lo- 
quacious. A talkative person is sometimes silent 
but never taciturn. 

"The cause of Addison's taciturnity was a natural 
diffidence in the company of strangers." 

Sneer, Jeer, Scoff. — "The verb to sneer implies 
to cast contempt indirectly or by covert expression. 
To jeer is stronger, and denotes the use of severe, 
sarcastic reflections. To scoff is stronger still, im- 
plying the use of insolent mockery and derision. " — 
Webster. 

"Knowing this first, that there shall come in the 
last days scoffers, walking after their own lusts." 
2 Peter 3 : 3. 

Stimulant, Stimulus. — The former word is gen- 
erally used to designate anything material taken 
into the systen in order to stir and quicken the 
nerves; as all malt and spirituous liquors, tea, cof- 
fee, morphine, etc. The latter often expresses an 
abstract idea; as, The hope of immortality is a 
powerful stimulus to Christian endeavor. Light is 
a stimulus (not stimulant) to the eye; air-waves, to 
the ear. Stimulus is akin in meaning to incentive. 
Stimulate is the conjugate verb to both these nouns. 

Talkative, Loquacious, Garrulous. — A talkative 
person is by nature disposed to talk much, but usually 
restrains himself somewhat, A loquacious person 

19 



288 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

not only talks much but has also a very ready flow 
of words at command. Persons — especially women 
— of high animal spirits are, as a rule, given to lo- 
quacity. Loquacious persons seldom think below the 
surface of things. Persons who indulge in prosy, 
tiresome, long-drawn-out talk are garrulous. Illiter- 
ate old men are particularly prone to garrulity. Gar- 
rulous persons take delight in imparting petty and 
valueless information. They are full of petty ex- 
periences, in the detailing of which they occupy the 
time of others. Feebleness of mind and egotism 
breed garrulity. The loquacious wear out our ears ; 
the garrulous, our patience. 

Worth, Value. — The tvorth of anything is in- 
trinsic; the value is accidental. Its value is deter- 
mined by what it does for you, or by the price it 
will bring in the market. A thing's worth is its 
inherent merit or excellence, and is therefore per- 
manent. Value is subject to change. 

"The picture," he said, "was valued at one hundred 
dollars, but I think it is worth much more." 

EXERCISE I 

Use the following words in sentences which illus- 
trate the difference in the meaning of the words in 
each pair or each set: 

Emigrant, immigrant; peaceable, peaceful; con- 
vince, persuade; ought, should; lie, untruth; haste, 
hurry; healthful, healthy; new, novel; exceedingly, 



USE OF WORDS 289 

excessively; last, latest; fewer, less; luxuriant, lux- 
urious; hanged, hung; evidence, testimony; reveal, 
divulge; depot, station. 

EXERCISE II 

The words in each of the following "pairs sound 
somewhat alike, but are not synonymous. Use each 
word correctly in a sentence: 

Revenge, avenge ; visitor, visitant ; equable, equita- 
ble; exceptional, exceptionable; incredible, incredu- 
lous ; ingenious, ingenuous ; delusion, illusion ; excite, 
incite; egoism, egotism; apposite, opposite; council, 
counsel ; completion, completeness ; adherence, adhe- 
sion ; negligence, neglect ; organism, organization, ac- 
cess, accession; deceit, deception; complement, com- 
pliment ; conscience, consciousness ; novice, novitiate ; 
site, situation; union, unity; long, lengthy; piti- 
able, pitiful; deadly, deathly; human, humane; 
practical, practicable ; venal, venial ; Greek, Grecian ; 
artist, artisan; social, sociable; politic, political; 
deprecate, depreciate; ceremonial, ceremonious; ad- 
vance, advancement. 

EXERCISE III 

State orally what the difference is between — 

Love and like, angry and mad, guess and suppose, 

beside and besides, replace, and displace, rendering 

and rendition, happen and transpire, stricken and 

struck, little and small, custom and habit, amateur 



290 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

and novice, expect and suppose, balance and differ- 
ence, around and round, center and middle, learn and 
teach, stay and stop, dominate and domineer, drive 
and ride, funny and odd, farther and further, visi- 
tant, and visitor, mercenary and venal, lie and 
untruth, stimulant and stimulus, eternal and ever- 
lasting, falseness and falsity, and oh, balance and 
remainder. 

EXERCISE IV 

Which of the italicized words in each of the fol- 
lowing sentences is the proper word? 

1. He is well informed (posted) on such matters. 

2. He said, "I am bound (determined) to try it." 

3. The Governor has deputized (deputed) Colonel 
Fletcher to act for him. 

4. The traitor was hanged (hung) yesterday. 

5. The rumor should be wholly discounted (dis- 
credited) . 

6. He won her confidence by base deception (de- 
ceit) . 

7. The train has just left the station (depot). 

8. He has recently got over (recovered from) a 
second attack. 

9. Emigration (immigration) is one cause of the 
rapid growth of our population. 

10. We have already proved the falseness (falsity) 
of that hypothesis. 

11. One can hardly realize the enormousness 
(enormity) of the national wealth. 



USE OF WORDS 291 

12. Clark had thirty votes, Hayne, twenty, and 
Vincent fifteen; hence Clark was elected by a safe 
plurality (majority). 

13. He sold me a receipt (recipe) for a cleansing 
fluid, which he says can not be surpassed. 

14. The police are looking for the guilty persons 
(parties). 

15. The pupils all say that the teacher has an 
irritating (aggravating) manner. 

16. Mr. Jones, you and I have a mutual (common) 
friend in Joe Mitchell. 

17. He would as leave (lief) be a private as an 
officer. 

18. He promised to come at once (right away). 

19. Fruit is not so plenty (plentiful) as it was 
last year. 

20. It is funny (strange) that one so robust should 
die so young. 

21. I could not convince (persuade) him that he 
had been misinformed. 

22. We put everything in the shop at his disposal 
(disposition) . 

23. I did not hear your answer (reply) to his ac- 
cusation. 

24. His subsequent (future) life was irreproach- 
able. 

25. In the meantime important events were taking 
place (transpiring) in Holland. 

26. It was with difficulty that the lawyer elimi- 
nated (elicited) the desired information. 



292 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

27. His awkwardness in handling the mallet 
proved him a novice {amateur) . 

28. He was exposed to continuous (continual) in- 
terruption. 

29. I would have gone if it had been ever (never) 
so stormy. 

30. His life was one of luxuriant (luxurious) ease. 

31. He promised to return inside of (within) ten 
days. 

32. I have no desire to detract (deteriorate) from* 
his merit. 

33. He does not realize the enormity (enormous- 
ness) of his crime. 

34. Temperate habits are an important preven- 
tative (preventive) of sickness. 

35. Catholic forms of public worship are more 
ceremonial (ceremonious) than are Protestant. 

36. His address was exceptionably (exception- 
ally) good. 

37. I admire your candidness (candor). 

38. Inebriety (inebriation) is a ruinous vice. 

39. A house in Walnut Street was entered by 
burglars (buglarized) last night. 

40. He became angry (mad) at what I said. 

41. The boy is so dumb (stupid) that he can not 
grasp the simplest facts of arithmetic. 

42. We were wearied by his long (lengthy) ex- 
planations. 

43. She looked deadly (deathly) pale. 



USE OF WORDS 293 

44. Were the instructions given orally (verbally) 
or in writing? 

45. It was very (real) kind in you to send me 
flowers. 

46. Will you loan (lend) your carriage for an 
hour this afternoon? 

47. He tried to discover (locate) the places 
whence the sounds came. 

48. I hope you may succeed in convicting (con- 
vincing) him of his error. 

49. They left town without effecting (affecting) 
their purpose. 

50. The orator enthused (aroused the enthusi- 
asm of) his audience. 

51. They were all persons of extraordinary im- 
portance (consequence) . 

52. My former employer has sent (made) the re- 
mittance I expected. 

53. Every application made for procuring a par- 
don was ineffectual (unsuccessful). 

54. What method of procedure (proceeding) 
would you adopt in that case? 

55. Do you expect (anticipate) a good crop this 
year? 

56. At what hotel did you stop (stay) while in 
Paris? 

57. The patient is somewhat (some) better. 

58. We shall try (make) an experiment. 

59. Brown is a valued (valuable) contributor to 
the Evening Post. 



294 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

60. It was a nice (good) program. 

61. He plead (pleaded) guilty. 

62. Professor Brown has written much on the 
art of rearing (raising) children. 

63. I drove past (by) your house yesterday. 

64. His numerous (many) friends congratulated 
him. 

65. Boston is farther (further) from Philadelphia 
than is New York. 

66. Mary Jones is a chronic (confirmed) invalid. 

67. The Irish continuously (continually) use shall 
for will. 

68. The proprietor of the hotel is an uncommonly 
zealous person (individual). 

69. He was conscious (aware) of the hatred that 
rankled in his heart. 

70. The immigrants will locate (settle) in Oregon. 

71. They jeopardized (jeoparded) their lives in 
defense of their liberties. 

72. The employees will find (furnish) the tools. 

73. It costs ten cents to have your shoes black- 
ened (blacked) in this town. 

74. From whence (whence) came the apparition? 

75. Tom's mother is a widow (widow wom.ari) . 

The following words, in the sense indicated, are 
marked colloquial in the Standard Dictionary : 

Bosh (empty talk). 
Boss, to (to act the boss) . 
Breeches (trousers) . 
Chuck, to (to pitch). 



USE OF WORDS 295 

Clip (a blow with the hand). 

Cute (shrewd, acute). 

Disgruntle, to (to vex by disappointment). 

Doctor, to (to repair). 

Engineer, to (to work a scheme on). 

Fib, to (to speak falsely). 

Fishy (improbable). 

Fizzle, to (to fail). 

Fry (a state of excitement) . 

Gallowses (suspenders for the trousers). 

Happen in, to (to make a chance call). 

Heft (weight). 

Hunk (a large piece). 

Lot (a great deal). 

Miff, to (to offend slightly) . 

Muffish (dull-witted; awkward). 

Natty (neatly fine; spruce). 

Peeper (the eye). 

Rattle, to (to disconcert). 

Reckon, to [prov.] (to think). 

Rugged (robust; strong). . 

Scoot, to (to scurry off). 

Shaver (a lad). 

Ship, to (to get rid of). 

Sight (a great number) . 

Snake, to (to drag or pull). 

Spin, to (to move swiftly) . 

Thick Overy intimate). 

Vim (force or vigor). 

Wire, to (to telegraph). 

Yank (to jerk). 



296 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

The following words, in the sense indicated, are 
marked slang in the Standard Dictionary : 

Boodle (bribe money). 

Enthuse, to (to make enthusiastic). 

Kid (a young child). 

Mossback (a conservative partisan). 

Plug (a silk hat) . 

Pull (an advantage). 

Rope in, to (to decoy). 

Scalawag (a scapegrace). 

Shag-rag (the ragged part of the community). 

Sorehead (a person disaffected by disappoint- 
ment) . 

Splurge (an obtrusive display). 

Sport (a sportsman). 

Swell (a showy person). 

The following words, though marked colloquial, 
in the sense indicated, in Webster's International 
Dictionary, may now be regarded as pure English 
words, being so recognized by the Standard Dic- 
tionary : 

Gush (effusive speech). 

Coach, to (to train by personal instruction). 

Headachy (subject to headache). 

Kelter (proper condition). 

Know-all (a wiseacre). 

Nag, to (to annoy, or tease, in a petty way) . 

offish (shy). 

Run (a trip). 

Scamp, to (to do work imperfectly). 



USE OP WORDS 297 



Scare (a fright) . 
Seedy (shabby looking). 
Shaky (easily shaken) . 
Tantrum (a fit of ill humor) , 
Tip (a fee). 



INDEX 



Eef erences are to pages ; f signifies ' ' and the following page ; ' ' 
ff, "and the following pages." Words treated as words are in 
italics; other topics are in Roman. 

Abbreviate : 253 

Above 246 

Abridge 253 

Accede 254 

Accept 247 

Acceptance 254 

Acceptation 254 

Accept of 247 

.Access 253 

Accession 253 

Accuracy in the use of words 246ff 

Acquiesce 254f 

Acquire 254 

Act 248 

Action 248 

Active , 253f 

Administer 247 

Admit _ 247 

Advent 247 

Affect 249 

Aggregate 247 

Agile 253f 

Agree 247 

Agriculturist 248 

Alert 253f 

All 248 

Allegory, defined and illustrated, 187ff; exercises in 189 

All of 248 

(298) 



INDEX 299 

Allow 249 

Allude 248 

Almost 81 

Alone 248 

Alternative 249 

Amateur 250 

Ambiguous 276 

Ancestors 278 

Ancient 250 

Answer 252 

Anticipate 250f 

Antiquated 250 

Antique 250 

Antithesis, denned and illustrated 215ff 

Anxious 251 

Anyhow 251 

Apostrophe, figure of, defined and illustrated 186f 

Apparent ' . 252 

Appear 286 

Applied grammar 7ff 

Apt 251f 

Arrange 278 

Arrival 247 

Articles, 34f¥ ; exercises in 36ff 

As if 252 

Assent 254 

Assert . . 261 

As though 252 

At any rate 251 

At last 253 

At length 253 

Atone for 262 

Attitude 284 

Audience 255 

Authoress 255f 

Avaricious 263 



300 INDEX 

Avocation 256 

Avoid 256f 

Awful 257 

Bad 83, 257 

Badly 257 

Balanced sentence, defined and illustrated, 174f; exercise ..175f 

Barbaric . 259 

Barbarous 259 

Begin 265 

Belong 258 

Bestow 259 

Better : 258 

Black .258 

Blacken 258 

Bound 259 

Bough 258 

Brackets 133 

Branch 258 

Bravery 258 

Brevity, 209 ; exercise in 212 

Bring 260 

Building a vocabulary, 234f¥; exercises in 237, 245 

But that 82f 

But what 82f 

Calculate 260 

Can .. 44 

Capable 261 

Capital letters, rules governing use of, 91ff ; exercise in 93 

Case forms of pronouns, 19f; exercise in 20ff 

Ceremonial 264f 

Ceremonious 264f 

Character 261 

Chasteness 265 

Chastity 265 

Claim 261 

Clearness of sentence, 192ff; exercises in, 193, 194, 195, 199, 201 



INDEX 301 

Clever 262 

Climax, defined and illustrated 213ff 

Colon, the; rules governing use of, 124ff; exercise in 127 

Comma, the ; rules governing use of 99ff 

exercises in 101, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 114, 116fT 

Commence 265 

Comparison, 68 ; exercise in 69fY 

Compensation , 285 

Complete 275 

Composition, principles of . . 163ff 

Condign 262 

Condone - 262 

Confer 259 

Congregate together 262 

Conjunctions, correlative, 79; exercise in 80 

Conquer .... '. .266f 

Consider ..." 262f 

Contemptible 263 

Contemptuous 263 

Continual 264 

Continuous 264 

Conversationist 248 

Contrary 283f 

Courage 258 

Course 249 

Covetous 263 

Credible 263f 

Creditable 263f 

Crime . 265f 

Custom '. , 265 

Dangerous 267 

Dash, the; rules governing use of 130ff 

Deadly 269 

Deathly 269 

Deceit 270 

Deception 270 



302 INDEX 

Bedded 269f 

Decisive 269f 

Defective . . 271 

Defend 268 

Deity 270 

Demean 267 

Desirous 251 

Deteriorate 274 

Determined 259 

Detract from 274 

Difficulty 271f 

Dirt 274 

Disability , 267f 

Disbelief 270 

Discern 272 

Discretion 268f 

Discriminate 268 

Disgrace 267 

Distinguish 268 

Divinity 270 

Donate 272f 

Double negatives 82 

Due 273 

Duty 282f 

Earth 274 

Effect 249 

Elegant 273 

Emigrant 275 

Enormity 275 

Enormous n ess 275 

Enough 274f 

Entire 83, 275 

Epigram, the; illustrated, 218; exercise in 218f 

Equanimity 275 

Equivocal 276 

Every : 83 



INDEX 303 

Excellent 273 

Exclamation, figure of 220f 

Exclamation point, rules governing use of, 98f 

Expect : 250f 

Exuberant 276 

Faulty 271 

Faulty metaphors, 189; exercise in correcting 190 

Feign 276f 

Female 278f 

Fetch 260 

Figures of speech, 177fY ; defined .178 

Fix 278 

Force, explained and illustrated, 203; devices for securing, 

204fT; exercises in ..' 205, 207f, 225f 

Forefathers 278 

Foregoing 246 

Foretell 277 

Fortitude 258 

Freedom 281 

Gain 280 

Garrulous 287f 

Gender, defined, 17 ; exercise in 18f 

Genius 279f 

Gentleman 279 

Give 272 

Good-natured 262 

Habit 265 

Had ought 83 

Hyperbole 217f 

Idle ? 280 

Immigrant 275 

Inability 267f 

Indolen t 280 

Infinitives, present and perfect, 47 ; exercises in 48 

Inquiring 281 

Inquisitive 281 

20 



304 INDEX 

Interrogation, figure of 219f 

Interrogation point, rules governing use of 97f 

Intend 260f 

Introduce ' 285 

Intrude 282 

Inverted order, 222ff; exercise in 224f 

Invitations and replies 155ff 

Irony, defined and illustrated 222 

Irritate 247 ' 

Italics, rules governing use of 94f 

Jeer . 287 

Lady 279 

Letter-writing, 141ff ; exercises in ' 160f 

Letters, kinds of 141f 

Letters, parts of 142f 

Liable 251f 

Liberty 281 

Lie or lay, exercise in the use of 40 

Like 75 

Likely 251f 

Lively 253 

Long sentences 164f 

Lookers-on 255 

Loose sentences * 166 

Loquacious 287f 

Luxuriant 276 

Marine 281f 

Maritime 281f 

Maternal 282 

May 44 

Metaphor, the, defined and illustrated 181f; exercise in ..182f 

Faulty metaphors 189 

Metonymy, defined and illustrated, 208f ; exercise in 209 

More than 258 

Mortal 269 

Most 81 



INDEX 305 

Motherly 282 

Nautical 281f 

Naval 281f 

Novice 250 

Number forms of norms, 12ff; exercise in 16f 

Obligation ? ..." 282f 

Observance . 283 

Observation 283 

Obsolete 250 

Obstacle 271f 

Obtain . , .254 

Obtrude 282 

Obvious 252 

Off of 74 

Only 248 

Opposite 283f 

Overcome 266f 

Owing 273 

Paragraphing, explained and illustrated, 226ff; exercises in 233 

Parenthesis, marks of; rules governing use of 132f 

Parsimonious 263 

Perceive 272 

Period, the, rules governing use of 95 f 

Periodic sentence, the, defined and illustrated, 167ff ; 

exercise in 171ff 

Permit 249 

Perpetual 264 

Personification, defined and illustrated, 183f ; exercise in . . . .184f 

Poetess 255f 

Possessive case of nouns, 8ff ; exercise in 10ff 

Possessive form before verbal nouns, 29 ; exercise in 30 

Posture . 284 

Predict 277 

Prepositions, correct use of, 71 ; exercise in 73ff 

Present _ 285 

Pretend 276f 



306 INDEX 

Prevent 256 

Pride 284f 

Prolixity 211f 

Pronouns and their antecedents, 31; exercises in 31ff 

Protect 268 

Prudence 268f 

Punctuation, 90ff; exercises in 134ft: 

Quite 83 

Quotation, marks of; rules governing use of 128f 

Real 82 

Beally 82 

Recollect 285 

Recompense * 285 

Refer '. ... 248 

Relative pronouns, choice in use of, 26f ; exercises in 27ff 

Remember 285 

Remuneration 285f 

Reply 252 

Reputation 261 

Reticent 286f 

Rise or raise 43 

Safe 286 

Scoff 287 

Secure , 286 

Seem 286 

Semicolon, the, rules governing use of, 119ff 

exercises in 119, 121, 123 

Sentence, the, defined and illustrated, . 166ff 

Severe 83, 257, 262 

Shall and will, 58fY; exercises in 62ff 

Should and would, 58ff ; exercises in 62ff 

Silent 286f 

Simile, defined and illustrated 178ff 

Sin 265 

Sit or set 42 

Sneer 287 



INDEX 307 

Soil 274 

Solecism, defined 7 

Solecisms, practice in detecting 83 ff 

Some 81 

Something 81 

Somewhat 81 

Specific words, 206; exercise in 207f 

Stimulant 287 

Stimulus 287 

Strike . ..247 

Style, defined 191 

Subdue 266f 

Subject and predicate, concord of, 54ff; exercises in 56ft 

Subjunctive mode, 49ff; exercise in 51fi° 

Sufficient 274f 

Susceptible 261 

Synecdoche, defined 209 

Syntax, defined 7 

Taciturn ". 286f 

Talent - 279f 

Talkative 287f 

Than 75 

That 33 

These f 33 

Think 262f 

This 33 

Those . 33 

Titles, use of 150 

Unbelief 270 

Unchangeable facts, how expressed 45 ff 

Unity in sentences 201f 

Value . . 288 

Vanity 284f 

Vanquish 266f 

Verbs, correct forms of, 38ff; exercise in 40ff 

Verbs, with adjective complements 76ff 



308 INDEX 

Very 257 

Very much 83 

Vice ". 2651* 

Vocation 256 

Was graduated 278 

Were or was 53 

Will and shall, 58ff ; exercises in 62ff 

Win 280 

Woman 278 

Words, accuracy in the use of, 246; exercises in the use of . .288ff 

Worth .288 

Would and should, 58ff ; exercises in 62fY 



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